^/|    >«y 


JOHNA.SEAVERNS 


y 


A  TEXT- BOOK 


OF 


HORSESHOEING 


FOR 


Horseshoers  and  Veterinarians 


A.   LUNGWITZ 


MEMBER    OF   THE    ROYAL  SAXON   VETERINARY    COMMISSION,    LATE  INSTRUCTOR    IN    THE 

THEORY    AND    PRACTICE    OF    HORSESHOEING,    AND    DIRECTOR    OF    THE    SHOEING 

SCHOOL    OF    THE    ROYAL    VETERINARY    COLLEGE    IN     DRESDEN,    GERMANY 


TRANSLATED    FROM    THE    TENTH    GERMAN    EDITION 

BY 

JOHN    W.   ADAMS,  A.B.,  V.M.D. 

PROFESSOR     OF    SURGERY     AND     OBSTETRICS,    AND     LECTURER    ON    SHOEING    IN    THE 
VETERINARY     DEPARTMENT,    UNIVERSITY     OF    PENNSYLVANIA 


JVITH    ONE    HUNDRED    AND    SIXTY  ILLUSTRATIONS 


PHILADELPHIA 

J.   B.   LIPPINCOTT    COMPANY 

London  :    5    Henrietta   Street,  Covent  Garden 

1904 


i 


Copyright,  1897,  by  J.  B,  Lippincott  Company. 


Copyright,  1904,  by  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company. 


} 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION. 


The  inauguration  of  the  law  requiring  horseshoers  to  be  ex- 
amined emphasizes  the  need  of  a  brief  and  easily  understood 
text-book  on  theoretical  and  practical  horseshoeing.  At  the  re- 
quest of  the  Royal  Veterinary  Commission,  in  charge  of  the  Royal 
Veterinary  School  in  Dresden,  and  many  interested  individuals, 
I  have  attempted  to  meet  this  need  by  condensing  within  the 
narrowest  possible  limits  all  that  is  essential  to  the  horseshoer 
in  the  practice  of  his  profession.  The  subject-matter  has  been 
cast  into  a  logically  arranged  course  of  instruction  ;  all  that  is 
superfluous  and  is  found  only  in  exhaustive  treatises  on  shoeing 
has  been  omitted. 

In  order  to  make  this  elementary  text-book  more  easy  to  under- 
stand, numerous  instructive  illustrations  have  been  incorporated, 
which  were  taken  partly  from  "  Der  Fuss  des  Pferdes,"  by  Lei- 
sering  &  Hartmann,  fifth  edition,  Dresden,  1882 ;  partly  from  the 
journal  Der  Hufschmied,  and  partly  from  drawings  made  specially 
for  this  work. 

With  the  desire  that  this  little  book  may  find  many  friends 
and  supply  them  with  valuable  information,  it  is  herewith  given 
to  the  public. 

The  Author. 

Dresden,  September,  1884. 


PREFACE   TO   THE   TENTH   EDITION. 


In  order  to  note  the  progress  of  farriery,  in  this  edition  sev- 
eral chapters  have  been  revised  and  the  number  of  illustrations 
increased.     The  size  of  the  book  remains  about  the  same. 

The  Author. 
'    Dresden-Kleinschachwitz,  1903. 


TRANSLATOR'S    PREFACE. 


During  the  past  nine  years  in  which  it  has  been  my  privilege 
to  teach  horseshoeing  to  students  of  veterinary  medicine  in  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  to  classes  of  hoEseshoers  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Master  Horseshoers'  National  Protective 
Association  of  America,  I  have  been  forcibly  impressed  with  the 
urgent  need  of  a  text-book  of  horseshoeing  that  is  adapted  to 
the  needs  of  beginners.  In  my  opinion,  such  a  Avork  must  pre- 
sent a  detailed  description  of  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the 
legs  below  the  middle  of  the  cannons,  and  must  emphasize  in 
unmistakable  terms  the  definite  relations  which  exist  between 
certain  well-defined  forms  of  the  hoof  and  certain  well-defined 
standing  positions  of  the  limb.  Only  on  this  sure  foundation 
can  a  thoroughly  scientific  system  of  shoeing  be  based.  Further- 
more, the  teachings  must  be  eminently  practical,  logically  ar- 
ranged, as  brief  as  is  consistent  with  clearness,  easy  of  compre- 
hension by  persons  who  are  unfamiliar  with  technical  language, 
profusely  illustrated,  and  moderate  in  price. 

Through  the  kindness  of  my  respected  friend  and  former 
teacher,  Professor  A.  Lungwitz,  one  of  the  highest  authorities  in 
all  matters  pertaining  to  shoeing,  and  for  many  years  a  teacher 
in  and  the  Director  of  what  I  believe  to  be  the  best  school  of 
shoeing  in  the  world,  I  am  enabled  to  present  to  the  public  this 
translation  of  his  text-book  for  students  of  shoeing.  Written  to 
meet  requirements  identical  with  those  existing  to-day  in  the 
United  States,  and  in  scope  and  arrangement  exactly  suited  to 
both  student  and  teacher,  I  am  confident  that  it  will  meet  the 
favor  that  it  merits. 

The  Translator. 

Philadelphia,  1904. 

5 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Introduction 11 

The  Object  of  Shoeing 11 

PART    I. 
CHAPTER    I. 

gross  anatomy  of  the  horse. 

Bones  of  the  Head — Bones  of  the  Trunk 15 

The  Spinal  Column — Bones  of  the  Thorax 15,  16 

Bones  of  the  Pelvis — Bones  of  the  Limbs 17 

Joints — Muscles — Tendon  Sheaths 20-22 

'I'Hh!  FOOT. 

A.  The  Bones  of  the  Foot 22 

The   Cannon — The  Long  Pastern — The  Sesamoid   Bones — The 
Short  Pastern— The  Pedal  Bone— The  Navicular  Bone  .    .     23-26 

B.  The  Articulations  of  the  Foot 26 

I.   The  Fetlock-Joint 26 

The  Suspensory  Ligament 27 

The  Inferior  Sesamoid  Ligament 27 

II.  The  Coronary  Joint 29 

HI.   The  Pedal  Articulation  (Coffin  Joint) 29 

C.  The  Locomotory  Organs  of  the  Foot 30 

The  Anterior  Extensor  Tendon  of  the  Phalanges — The  Perforatus 

Tendon — The  Perforans  Tendon 30-32 

Mucous  Bursae  and  Tendon  Sheaths 33 

Altering  the  Relative  Tension  of  the  Flexor  Tendons 
and  Suspensory  Ligament  of  the  Fetlock-Joint     .    .    34 

D.  The  Elastic  Parts  of  the  Foot .    35 

The  Lateral  Cartilages — The  Plantar  Cushion 35,  36 

E.  The  Blood-Vessels  and  Nerves 37 

The  Arteries  of  the  Foot— The  Veins  of  the  Foot— The  Nerves  of 

the  Foot 37-40 

7 


8  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

F.  The  Protective  Organs  of  the  Foot 41 

(d)  The  Hair-Skin 41 

1.  The  Epidermis 41 

2.  The  Dermis    .'..... 42 

3.  The  Subcutaneous  Tissue 42 

(b)  The  Hoof-Skin,  or  Pododerm 42 

1.   The  PeriopHc  Band 43 

2.- The  Coronary  Band 44 

...    -3.- The  Fleshy  Wall 44 

The  Fleshy  Leaves  (Podophyllous  Tissue) 46 

4.  The  Velvety  Tissue  of  the  Sole 46 

5.  The  Velvety  Tissue  of  the  Frog 46 

(c)  The  Horn  Capsule  or  Hoof 47 

The  Wall '* 49 

The  Bars .49 

The  Layers  of  the  Wall  :  1.  The  Periople.     2.  The  Middle 
-or  Protective  Layer.    3.   The  Leafy  Layer  (Keraphyllous 

Layer) 49-50 

.    The  Sole  . 61 

The  Frog 53 

The  Minute  Structure  of  the  Horn 54 

Hard  and  Soft  Horn 55 


CHAPTER    IL 

THE    FOOT    IX    ITS    RELATION    TO    THE    ENTIRE    LIMB. 

A.  Standing  Positions  of  the  Limbs 58 

(o)  The  Positions  of  a  Fore-Limb  viewed  from  in  Front  and  in 

Profile 59,  60 

(b)  The  Positions  of   a    Hind  Limb  viewed  from   Behind  and   in 

Profile 62 

B.  Forms  of  Feet,  viewed  from  in  Front,  from  Behind,  and 

in  Profile 64 

C.  Lines  of  Fhght  of  Hoofs  in  Motion 67 

D.  Forms  of  Hoofs 68 

The  Hoof  of  the  Regular  Position — The  Hoof  of  the  Base-Wide 
Position — The  Hoof  of  the  Base-Narrow  Position — Forms  of 
Hind  Hoofs — The  Wide  and  the  Narrow  Hoof — The  Character- 
istics of  Healthy  Hoofs 68-72 

B.  Growth  of  the  Hoof  and  Wear  of  the  Hoof  and  Shoe  .    .    73 
F.  Physiological  Movements  of  the  Hoof 76 


CONTENTS.  9 

PART  II. 
CHAPTER    I. 

SHOEING    HEALTHY    HOOFS.  p^^^, 

A.  Examination  of  a  Horse  Preliminary  to  shoeing    ....  80 

B.  Raising  and  holding  the  Feet  of  the  Horse  to  be  shod    .  83 

C.  Removing  the  Old  Shoes 85 

D.  Preparing  the  Hoof  for  the  Shoe 85 

E.  Preparing  the  Hoof  for  going  Barefoot 89 

P.  Making  Shoes 90 

The  Pedometer — Making  Front  Shoes — Making  Hind  Shoes — Gen- 
eral Characteristics  of  Shoes — A  Shoe  with  Heel-Calks — A  Shoe 
with  Toe-  and  Heel-Calks — Special  Characteristics  of  Shoes  .     90-102 

G.  Choosing  the  Shoe 102 

H.  Shaping  and  fitting  Shoes — General  Considerations    .    .  102 

Shaping  and  fitting  Shoes — Special  Considerations  .    .  105 

Fitting  Shoes  to  Heavy  Draught  Horses 107 

I.    Naihng  the  Shoe — Horseshoe  NaUs 109 

K.  Machine  Shoes 113 

CHAPTER    II. 

SHOEING    HORSES    THAT    FORGE    AND    INTERFERE. 

A,  Forging 115 

B.  Interfering , IIG 

CHAPTER    III. 
winter  shoeing. 

1.  Ice-Nails  (Frost-Nails) 119 

2.  Sharp  Toe-  and  Heel-Calks 119 

3.  Screw-Calks •    •    • 120 

4.  Peg-Calks 122 

(a)  Round  Peg-Calks 122 

(6)  Square  Peg-Calks 122 

5.  Peg  Toe-Calks 127 

6.  Removable  Heel-Calks,  that  do  not  require  Sharpening    ....  127 

CHAPTER    IV. 
hoof  nurture. 

A.  Care  of  Unshod  Hoofs 130 

B.  Care  of  Shod  Hoofs 131 

Greasing  and  soaking  the  Hoof 132 


10  CONTENTS. 

PART   111. 
CHAPTER    I. 

GENERAL     REMARKS     CONCERNING     THE     SHOEING      OF     DEFECTIVE     HOOFS     AND  LAME 

HORS£S*  PAGE 

General  Remarks 134-137 

Classification  of  Diseases  of  the  Hoof 138 

CHAPTER    II. 
inflammations  of  the  pododerm. 

1.  Nailing 139 

2.  Street-Nail 143 

3.  Calk- Wounds  of  the  Coronet 145 

4.  Corns 146 

5.  Inflammation  of  the    Heels 149 

6.  Laminitis  or  Founder 149 

7.  Keraphyllocele  (Horn  Tumor) 152 

CHAPTER    III. 
defects  of  the  hoof. 

A.  Changes  of  Form 154 

1.  The  Flat  and  the  Full  Hoof 154 

2.  The  Upright  or  Stumpy  Hoof 156 

3.  The  Contracted  Hoof 157 

(a)  The  Contraction  of  Wide  Hoofs 159 

(6)  Contraction  of  the  Sole 159 

4.  The  Wry  Hoof 160 

5.  The  Crooked  Hoof 162 

6.  Ossification  of  the  Lateral  Cartilage  (Side-Bone)     ....  163 

B.  Disturbances  of  Continuity  of  Hoof 164 

1.  Cracks 164 

2.  Clefts 169 

3.  Loose   Wall 170 

4.  Hollow  Wall 171 

5.  Thrush  of  the  Frog •  .    .    .    .  172 

CHAPTER    IV. 

shoeing  mules,  asses,  and  oxen. 

1.  The  Shoeing  of  Mules  and  Asses 173 

2.  The  Shoeing  of  Oxen 173 


INTRODUCTION. 


Horseshoeing  is  an  industry  which  requires,  in  equal  degree, 
knowledge  and  skill. 

The  word  "  horseshoeing"  embraces  various  acts,  especially 
preparing  the  iron  sole,  the  horseshoe ;  forming  it  and  fitting  it 
to  the  hoof,  whose  ground-surface  has  been  previously  dressed 
in  accordance  with  the  direction  of  the  limb,  and  fastening  it  to 
the  hoof  by  means  of  nails. 

Owing  to  the  complicated  structure  of  the  hoof,  success  in  the 
practice  of  horseshoeing  requires  a  knowledge  of  the  anatomy 
and  physiology  of  the  horse's  body  in  general  and  of  the  foot  in 
particular. 

The  object  of  shoeing  is, — 

1.  To  protect  the  hoof  from  excessive  wear,  and  thus  render 
the  horse  continuously  serviceable  upon  our  hard  roads. 

2.  To  prevent  slipping  and  falling  during  the  winter  season. 

3.  To  so  far  remove  the  disadvantages  of  faulty  positions  of 
the  limbs  that  horses  may  render  good  service,  and,  in  some 
cases, 

4.  To  cure  or  improve  diseased  or  defective  hoofs  or  feet. 

Horseshoeing,  though  apparently  simple,  involves  many  diffi- 
culties, owing  to  the  fact  that  the  hoof  is  not  an  unchanging  body, 
but  varies  much  with  respect  to  form,  growth,  quality,  and  elas- 
ticity.   Furthermore,  there  are  such  great  differences  in  the  char- 

11 


12  INTRODUCTION. 

acter  of  ground-surfaces  and  in  the  nature  of  horses'  work  that 
shoeing  which  is  not  performed  with  great  ability  and  care  in- 
duces disease  and  makes  horses  lame. 

In  view  of  these  facts,  a  thorough  training  of  the  young  horse- 
shoer  in  the  principles  and  practice  of  his  trade  is  not  only 
greatly  to  be  desired,  but  is  really  essential  to  success  ;  unreason- 
ing work  does  as  much  harm  in  this  as  in  any  other  vocation. 
A  good  common-school  education  is  necessary  (more  will  do  no 
harm).  Further  requisites  are  a  healthy  body,  not  too  tall,  liking 
for  the  work,  aptness,  an  active,  reasoning  mind,  fearlessness,  dex- 
terity, a  good  eye  for  propoiiion,  and,  finally,  careful  selection  of 
a  master-instructor.  Theoretically  educated,  practically  expe- 
rienced and  approved  masters,  in  whose  shops  all  kinds  of 
horses  are  shod,  are  to  be  preferred. 

During  his  term  of  apprenticeship  the  young  apprentice 
should  learn  to  make  drawings  of  horseshoes,  of  tools  of  the  trade, 
and  of  hoofs  of  various  forms,  and  should  also  make  one  or 
more  model  shoes  as  an  indication  of  his  ability.  After  completing 
his  time  he  should  seek  a  position  in  a  first-class  shop,  either  at 
home  or  abroad.  A  visit  to  foreign  lands  will  widen  one's 
mental  horizon  and  make  him  a  broader,  abler  man  in  every 
respect.  Later,  opportunity  will  be  given  to  some  (in  Germany) 
to  join  the  cavalry,  and  thus  accpire  a  good  education  in  shoe- 
ing under  the  patronage  of  the  government.  Finally,  a  course 
of  instruction  in  a  school  of  horseshoeing  will  convert  an  already 
practical  and  intelligent  horseshoer  into  a  thoughtful,  capable, 
expert  workman. 

The  scope  of  horseshoeing  is  by  no  means  so  narrow  and  in- 
significant as  it  may  appear,  and  since  a  knowledge  of  the  anat- 
omy and  physiology  of  the  horse's  body  in  general,  and  of  the 


INTRODUCTION.  13 

foot  in  particular,  is  necessary,  it  is  evident  that  the  schools  of 
horseshoeing  in  which  one  can  get  the  best  instruction  are  those 
in  which  there  is  not  only  a  regularly  graded  course  of  instruc- 
tion, with  demonstrations  upon  dissected  material  and  upon 
living  horses,  but  also  an  abundance  of  daily  work  at  the  forge 
and  on  the  floor  in  the  shoeing  of  horses.  A  course  of  four 
to  six  -weeks  is  not  suflBcient. 

Furthermore,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  schools  of  horse- 
shoeing are  not  for  the  purpose  of  instructing  young  men  in  all 
matters  which  pertain  to  the  trade,  but  only  in  the  making  of 
shoes,  the  critical  examination  and  management  of  hoofs,  and 
the  rational  and  skilful  performance  of  shoeing.  For  this  reason 
it  is  not  advisable  for  young  men  to  attend  a  school  of  horse- 
shoeing until  they  have  at  least  completed  their  apprenticeship. 


pAe 


HORSESHOEING. 


PART   I. 


CHAPTER  I. 
THE  GROSS  ANATOMY  OF  THE  HORSE. 

The  supporting  structure  of  the  horse's  body  is  the  bony  frame- 
work or  skeleton  (Fig.  1,  page  16).  We  distinguish  in  the  skele- 
ton the  bones  of  the  head,  trunk,  and  limbs. 

The  bones  of  the  head  are  numerous  and,  excepting  the  lower 
jaw,  are  solidly  united  with  one  another.  In  general,  we  distin- 
guish in  the  head  only  the  upper  and  lower  jaws  (1  and  1'). 
Both  form  various  cavities  ;  for  example,  the  cranial  cavity,  in 
which  the  brain  hes,  the  orbital  cavities  (eye-sockets),  the  nasal 
passages,  and  the  mouth.    Besides,  the  teeth  are  set  in  the  jaws. 

The  trunk  comprises  the  bones  of  the  spinal  column,  thorax, 
and  pelvis. 

The  spinal  or  vertebral  column  (2  to  6),  which  bears  the  head 
at  its  anterior  end,  is  the  chief  support  of  the  entire  skeleton. 
It  consists  of  from  fifty-two  to  fifty-four  single  and  irregular 
bones  called  vertebrae,  placed  in  the  upper  part  of  the  median 
vertical  plane  of  the  body.  Each  vertebra,  with  the  exception 
of  those  of  the  tail  (coccygeal  or  caudal  vertebrae),  is  traversed 
by  a  large  opening  called  the  vertebral  foramen.  The  vertebrae 
are  placed  end  to  end  in  a  row,  and  through  them  runs  a  con- 
tinuous large  canal  called  the  vertebral  or  spinal  canal,  in  which 
hes  the  spinal  cord.  The  horse  has  seven  cervical,  eighteen  dor- 
sal, six  lumbar,  five  sacral,  and  sixteen  to  eighteen  caudal  verte- 

16 


16 


HORSESHOEING. 


brse.     The  sacral  vertebrae  are  grown  together  to  form  one  piec 

called  the  sacrum. 

Fig.  1. 


Skeleton  of  the  Horse. — 1,  bones  of  the  head  :  1',  lower  jaw  ;  2,  cervical  vertehrse;  3,  ■ 
sal  vertebne  ;  4,  lumbar  vertebrae  :  5,  sacral  vertebrse  (sacrum) ;  6,  coccygeal  vertebrse  ;  7, 


dorsal 

ribs  ;  8,  sternum  (breast-bone) ;  9,  pelvis  ;  9',  ilium  ;  9",  ischium  ;  10,  scapula  (shoulder-blade) ; 
the  dotted  line  shows  the  position  of  the  scapular  cartilage  ;  11,  humerus  :  12,  radius  ;  13,  ulna ; 
14,  carpus  (knee) ;  15,  large  metacarpal  bone  (cannon) ;  16,  rudimentary  metacarpal  bones 
(splint-bones);  17,  os  suff'raginis  (long  pastern);  18,  as  coronre  (short  pa.stem)  ;  19,  os  pedis 
(hoof-bone) :  20,  sesamoid  bones  ;  21,  femur  ;  22,  patella  (knee-pan,  stifled ;  23,  tibia  ;  24.  fibula 
25,  tarsus,  or  hock  ;  26,  large  metatarsal  bone  (cannon) ;  27,  rudimentan-  metatarsals  (splint- 
bones)  ;  28,  OS  suffraginis  (long  pastern) ;  29,  os  coronse  (short  pastern) ;  30,  os  pedis  (hoof-bone, 
*'  coffin  bone") ;  31,  sesamoid  bones. 

The  thorax  is  formed  by  the  ribs  and  the  breast-bone  or  ster-j 
num.     The  horse  has  eighteen  ribs  on  each  side  (7),  and  all 
articulate  with  the  dorsal  vertebrae.     The  first  eight  pairs  unite 
by  their  lower  ends  directly  to  the  sternum  or  breast-bone,  and 


HORSESHOEING.  17 

are  therefore  called  true  ribs,  while  the  last  ten  pabs  are  only 
indirectly  attached  to  the  sternum,  and  are  consequently  called 
false  ribs.  The  sternum  (8)  lies  between  the  forelegs,  and  helps 
to  form  the  floor  of  the  chest  cavity.  The  space  enclosed  by  the 
bones  of  the  thorax  is  called  the  thoracic,  pulmonary,  or  chest 
cavity,  and  contains  the  heart  and  lungs.  The  bones  of  the  pelvis 
form  a  complete  circle  or  girdle.  The  upper  part,  called  the 
ilium  (9'),  articulates  on  its  inner  side  with  the  sacrum  (5), 
while  its  outer  side  is  prolonged  to  form  a  prominent  angle, 
which  is  the  support  of  the  hip,  and  is  called  the  "  point  of  the 
hip."  The  posterior  part  of  the  pelvis  is  called  the  ischium 
(9"),  and  that  part  lying  between  the  ilium  and  the  ischium  and 
forming  part  of  the  floor  of  the  pelvis  is  called  the  pubis. 

The  space  between  the  thorax  and  the  pelvis,  bounded  above 
by  the  lumbar  vertebrae  and  shut  in  below  and  on  the  sides  by 
the  skin  and  muscular  walls  of  the  belly  (abdomen',  is  called 
the  abdominal  cavity.  This  cavity  opens  directly  into  the  pel- 
vic cavity,  and  contains  the  stomach,  intestines,  liver,  spleen, 
pancreas,  kidneys,  and  a  part  of  the  generative  organs.  The 
thoracic  and  abdominal  cavities  are  separated  by  a  muscular 
partition,  the  diaphragm. 

The  bones  of  the  limbs  may  be  likened  to  columns,  upon 
which  the  body  rests  ;  they  articulate  with  one  another  at  various 
angles,  are  tubular  in  structure,  and  strong. 

The  bones  of  the  fore-limbs  do  not  articidate  directly  with  the 
bones  of  the  trunl:,  but  are  attached  to  the  body  by  means  of  the 
skin  and  muscles.  From  above  to  below  we  distinguish  the 
following  bones : 

1.  The  scapula,  or  shoulder-blade  (10),  a  flat,  triangular  bone, 
prolonged  at  its  upper  border  by  a  flat,  very  elastic  cartilage, 
called  the  scapular  cartilage.  At  its  lower  end  the  scapula 
articulates  with — 

2.  The  upper  end  of  the  humerus  (11),  forming  the  shoulder- 
joint  (scapulo-humeral  articulation).     The  humerus  articulates 

at  its  lower  end  with — 

2 


18  HORSESHOEING. 

3.  The  radius  (12)  and  the  ulna  (13),  to  form  the  elbow-joint 
These  two  bones  are  the  basis  of  the  forearm.  The  uhia, 
smaher  and  weaker  than  the  radius,  Ues  behind  and  projects 
above  it  to  form  the  point  of  the  elbow.  The  lower  end  of  the 
radius  articulates  with — 

4.  The  carpus.,  or  knee  (14),  which  comprises  seven  small, 
cubical  bones  disposed  in  two  horizontal  rows,  one  above  the 
other.  The  upper  row  comprises  four  bones  and  the  lower  row 
three.     The  lower  row  rests  upon — 

5.  The  large  metacarpal  or  cannon  hone.,  and  the  two  rudimen- 
tary metacarpal  or  splint-bones.  The  lower  end  of  the  radius,  the 
upper  ends  of  the  metacarpal  bones,  and  the  small  carpal  bones 
together  form  the  carpal  or  knee-joint  ( wrist  of  man).  Of  the  meta- 
carpals, the  middle  one  is  the  largest,  longest,  strongest,  and  most 
important,  and  is  called  the  large  metacarpal.,  cannon^  or  shin- 
bone  (15).  It  articulates  at  its  lower  end  with  the  os  suffraginis, 
or  long  pastern  (17),  and  with  the  two  small  sesamoid  bones  (20). 
On  each  side  of  the  upper  part  of  its  posterior  surface  lie  the 
two  long,  slender  splint-bones  (16).  The  inner  splint-bone  is 
sometimes  affected  with  bony  thickenings  (exostoses)  called 
"  splints." 

6.  The  bones  of  the  phalanges  (all  bones  below  the  cannon) 
will  be  fuhy  described  in  another  place. 

The  bones  of  the  hind  limbs  articulate  directly  with  the  pelvis 
at  the  hip-joint.  They  are  stronger  than  the  bones  of  the  ante- 
rior limbs.    We  distinguish  the  following  bones  in  the  hind  legs : 

1.  The  highest  bone  in  the  hind  limb  is  the  femur  (21).  It  is 
the  strongest  bone  in  the  entire  body.  It  lies  in  an  oblique 
direction  downward  and  forward,  and  at  its  lower  end  articulates 
with — 

2.  The  patella  (22),  the  tibia  (23),  and  the  fbnla  (24),  to  form 
the  stifle-joint  (knee  of  man).  Tlie  patella  plays  over  the  ante- 
rior surface  of  the  lower  end  of  the  femur.  The  fibula  is  small, 
and  lies  against  the  upper  and  outer  side  of  the  tibia.  The  latter 
at  its  lower  end  articulates  with — 


HORSESHOEING.  19 

3.  The  bones  of  the  tarsus,  or  hock  (25),  which  are  six  small, 
irregular  bones  disposed  in  three  rows,  one  above  another.  The 
OS  colds,  or  heel-hone,  and  the  astragalus  are  in  the  uppermost 
row,  and  are  the  most  important.  The  former  projects  above 
the  true  hock-joint  from  behind,  to  form  a  long  lever,  the  upper 
end  of  which  is  called  the  "  point  of  the  hock,"  and  the  latter 
articulates  with  the  tibia.  The  tarsal  (hock)  bones  articulate 
below  with — 

4.  The  metatarsal  hones  (26  and  27),  Avhich  are  longer,  and  the 
cannon  narrower  from  side  to  side,  than  the  corresponding  meta- 
carpal bones,  but  are  otherwise  similar. 

5.  The  phalanges  of  a  hind  limb  (28  to  31)  are  also  narrower 
than  those  of  a  fore-limb,  but  are  nearly  alike  in  other  respects. 

All  the  horse's  bones  present  small,  but  more  or  less  distinct 
openings  (nutrient  foramina)  for  the  passage  of  blood-vessels  and 
nerves.  Many  bones  possess  roughened  elevations  and  depres- 
sions, to  which  ligaments,  tendons,  or  muscles  are  attached. 
With  the  exception  of  the  os  pedis,  all  bones  are  enveloped  in  a 
sort  of  "  bone-skin"  called  periosteum.  The  bones  unite  among 
themselves  to  form  either  movable  or  hnmovahle  unions.  A  mova- 
ble union  between  two  or  more  bones  is  termed  a  "joint,"  or 
articulation.  The  articulating  ends  of  the  bones,  presenting 
on  one  side  a  convex  surface  (head  or  condyle)  and  on  the  other 
a  corresponding  concave  surface  (glenoid  or  cotyloid  cavity),  are 
covered  with  elastic  articular  cartilage.  The  bones  are  bound 
together  by  means  of  ligaments,  which  are  tough,  fibrous,  cord- 
hke,  or  sheet-like  structures.  Ligaments  are  either  (1)  capsular 
or  {2)  funicular  (cord-like).  Every  articulation  in  the  limbs  pos- 
sesses a  capsular  ligament,  and  all,  except  the  shoulder-joint, 
have  several  funicular  (cord-like)  ligaments.  The  capsular  liga- 
ments are  lined  upon  their  inner  face  with  a  delicate  membrane 
(synovial  membrane)  which  secretes  the  synovia,  or  "joint 
water,"  whose  function  is  to  lubricate  the  joint  and  prevent  fric- 
tion ;  they  enclose  the  joint  in  a  sort  of  air-tight  cuff  or  sack. 
The  funicular  ligaments  are  very  strong  and  often  large,  and  are 


20  HORSESHOEING. 

the  chief  means  of  union  of  the  bones.  The  immovable  articu- 
lations are  termed  sutures;  they  are  found  principally  in  the 
head.  The  mixed  joints  are  found  between  the  bodies  of  the 
vertebrae,  each  two  of  which  are  united  by  an  elastic  libro-carti- 
lage  which,  in  the  form  of  a  pad,  lies  between  them,  and  by  its 
elasticity  allows  of  very  slight  movement,  though  the  spinal  col- 
umn as  a  whole  can  execute  manifold  and  wide  movements,  as 
shown  by  the  neck  and  tail. 

Joints  which  permit  motion  in  all  directions  are  known  as  free 
joints;  such  are  the  shoulder-  and  hip-joints  (ball-and-socket 
joints).  Those  which  admit  of  motion  in  but  two  directions 
(flexion  and  extension),  and  often  to  a  very  hmited  extent,  are 
called  hing-e-joints, — e.g.,  the  elbow,  hock,  and  fetlock.  The 
joints  between  the  long  and  short  pasterns  and  between  the 
latter  and  the  pedal  bone  are  imperfect  hinge-joints,  because 
they  allow  of  some  other  movements  besides  flexion  and  exten- 
sion. The  articulation  between  the  first  and  second  cervical 
vertebrae  (atlas  and  axis)  is  called  a  pivot-joint. 

The  skeleton  represents  a  framework  which  closely  ap- 
proaches the  external  form  of  the  body,  and  by  reason  of  its 
hardness  and  stiffness  furnishes  a  firm  foundation  for  all  other 
parts  of  the  body.  By  reason  of  the  great  variety  of  position 
and  direction  of  the  bones,  and  of  the  fact  that  changes  of  posi- 
tion of  each  single  part  of  this  complicated  system  of  levers 
may  result,  in  the  greatest  variety  of  bodily  movements,  we  can 
readily  understand  how  the  horse  is  enabled  to  move  from  place 
to  place.  Of  course,  the  bones  have  no  power  of  themselves  to 
move,  but  this  power  is  possessed  by  other  organs  that  are 
attached  to  the  bones.  These  organs  are  the  muscles,  and, 
owing  to  their  ability  to  contract  and  shorten  themselves,  and 
afterwards  to  relax  and  allow  themselves  to  be  stretched  out, 
they  furnish  the  motive  power  that  is  communicated  to  and 
moves  the  bones. 

\     The  muscles  of  the  body  massed  together  are  the  red  flesh 
which  we  observe  in  every  slaughtered  animal.     They  are  not, 


HORSESHOEING. 
Fig.  2. 


21 


Outer  Muscles  of  the  Horse.— 1,  cervical  trapezius ;  2,  dorsal  trapezius ;  3,  mastoidO' 
humeralis ;  4,  great  dorsal  muscle  ;  5,  long  abductor  of  the  arm  :  6,  long  extensor  of  the  fore- 
arm ;  7,  large  extensor  of  the  forearm  ;  8,  short  extensor  of  the  forearm  ;  9,  stemo-trochinus 
(deep  pectoral) ;  10,  sterno-aponeuroticus ;  11,  great  serratus ;  12,  common  extensor  of  the 
metacarpus ;  13,  common  extensor  of  the  toe  (anterior  extensor) ;  14,  common  extensor  of 
the  long  pastern  (lateral  extensor' ;  15,  oblique  extensor  of  the  metacarpus :  16,  external  flexor 
of  the  metacarpus ;  17,  internal  flexor  of  the  metacarpus ;  18,  oblique  flexor  of  the  metacarpus ; 
19,  fascia  lata;  20,  superficial  gluteus  (anteiior  portion);  21,  middle  gluteus;  22,  superficial 
gluteus  i^posterior  portion) ;  23  and  24,  femoral  biceps  ;  25,  semitendinosus  ;  26,  semimembra- 
nosus ;  27,  anterior  extensor  of  the  toe  ;  28,  lateral  extensor  of  the  toe  ;  29,  perforans  muscle 
(deep  flexor  of  toe) ;  30,  oblique  flexor  of  the  phalanges  ;  31,  perforatus  tendon  (superficial  flexor 
of  phalanges) ;  32,  Achilles  tendon  (ham-string). 

however,  so  shapeless  as  they  appear  while  in  this  condition ; 
on  the  contrary,  they  present  well-arranged  muscular  layers 
of  variable  size,  thickness,  length,  and  position.      (See  Fig.  2.) 


22  HORSESHOEING. 

The  muscles  clothe  the  skeleton  externally,  give  the  body 
its  peculiar  form,  and,  by  their  special  power  of  contraction, 
change  the  relative  positions  of  the  bones  and  thus  make  it  pos- 
sible for  the  animal  to  move.  For  this  reason,  the  muscles  are 
called  the  active,  and  the  bones  the  passive,  organs  of  motion. 
By  carefully  examining  a  muscle  it  will  be  found  to  consist  of 
actual,  minute,  reddish,  muscular  fibres.  As  a  rule,  muscles  ter- 
minate in  more  or  less  strong,  glistening,  fibrous  cords  called 
tendons,  or  fibrous  sheets  termed  aponeuroses,  by  which  they 
are  attached  to  the  bones.  In  the  limbs  are  muscles  terminating 
in  very  long  tendons,  which  act  as  draw-lines  upon  the  distant 
bones  of  the  foot  (long  and  short  pasterns  and  pedal  bone)  and 
set  them  in  motion.  Such  long  tendons  are  enclosed  in  sheaths 
of  thin,  membranous  tissue,  known  as  tendon  sheaths.  The  inner 
surface  of  such  a  sheath  is  in  direct  contact  with  the  surface  of 
the  tendon,  and  secretes  a  thin  slippery  fluid  (synovia)  which 
lubricates  the  tendon  and  facilitates  its  gliding  within  the  sheath. 
As  long  as  the  bones,  articulations,  muscles,  and  tendons  of 
the  limbs  remain  healthy,  just  so  long  will  the  legs  maintain 
their  natural  direction  and  position.  Frequently,  however,  this 
normal  condition  of  the  limbs  is  gradually  altered  by  disease  of 
the  bones,  joints,  and  tendons,  and  defects  in  the  form  and 
action  of  the  lower  parts  of  the  limbs  arise  that  often  require 
attention  in  shoeing.  u- 
.  THE  FOOT. 

^^^^"^'  A.  The  Bones  of  the  Foot. 

Since  the  horse  is  useful  to  man  only  by  reason  of  his  move- 
ments, his  foot  deserves  the  most  can^ful  attention.  The  horse- 
shoer  should  be  familiar  with  all  its  parts.  Fig.  3  shows  the 
osseous  framework  of  the  foot,  consisting  of  the  lower  end  of  the 
cannon  bone  (yi),  the  long  pastern  (B),  the  two  sesamoid  bones- 
(C),  the  short  pastern  (D),  and  the  pedal  bone  (E).  The  lower 
end  of  the  cannon,  or  large  metacarpal  bone  (A)  exhibits  two 
convex  articular  surfaces  (condyles)  separated  by  a  median  ridge 
running  from  before  to  behind,  and  all  covered  by  articular  car- 


/^ 


HORSESHOEING. 


23 


tilage.     On  both  the  external  and  the  internal  aspects  of  the 
lower  end  of  the  cannon  are  small  uneven  depressions  in  which 
ligaments  take  their 
attachment. 

The  condyles  of 
the  cannon  articulate 
with  the  OS  suffra- 
ginis  (long  pastern) 
and  the  two  sesa- 
moids (Figs.  3,  C\  and 
4,  B)  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  in  the  fore- 
feet the  cannon 
makes  an  angle  with 
the  long  pastern  of 
from  one  hundred 
and  thirty  to  one  hun- 
dred and  forty  de- 
grees, and  in  the  hind 
feet  of  from  one  hun- 
dred and  forty  to  one 
hundred  and  fifty 
degrees. 

The  long-  pastern 
(first  phalanx)  (Fig. 
4,  A)  is  about  one-third  the  length  of  the  cannon ;  its  upper  and 
thicker  end  presents  two  condyloid  cavities  (a)  (glenoid  cavities), 
separated  by  a  median  groove,  which  exactly  fit  the  condyles 
and  ridge  at  the  lower  end  of  the  cannon.  The  lower  end  of 
the  long  pastern  is  smaller  than  the  upper,  and  is  provided  with 
two  condyles,  between  which  is  a  shallow  groove  (e).  The  an- 
terior face  of  the  bone  is  smooth,  rounded  from  side  to  side, 
and  blends  into  the  lateral  borders.  The  posterior  face  is  flatter, 
and  shows  a  clearly  marked  triangle  to  which  ligaments  attach. 

The  two  sesamoid  bones  (Fig.  4,  B)  are  small,  and  somewhat 


24 


.HORSESHOEING. 


pyramidal  in  shape,  and,  lying  against  the  posterior  part  of  the 

condyles  of  the  cannon   bone, 
^^"-  "*•  increase  the   articular  surfaces 

at  the  upper   end  of  the  long 
pastern. 

The  short  pastern  (second 
phalanx)  (Figs.  5  and  6)  lies 
under  the  first  phalanx  and 
above  the  os  pedis  ;  it  is  some- 
what cubical  in  shape.  Its 
upper  articular  surface  (Fig.  5, 
a)  presents  two  glenoid  cavities 
to  correspond  witli  the  condyles 
of  the  lirst  phalanx.  The  lower 
articular  surface  (Fig.  5,  d)  re- 
sembles the  lower  end  of  the 
first  phalanx.  The  upper  poste- 
rior border  of  this  bone  is  promi- 
nent and  prolonged  transversely 
(Fig.  6,  a),  to  serve  as  a  supporting  ledge  for  the  first  phalanx,  as 

a  point  of  attachment  for 
the  perforatus  tension, 
and  as  a  gliding  surface  for 
the  perforans  tendon. 

The  lowest  bone  of  the 
limb  is  the  third  phalanx 
or  OS  pedis  (Fig.  7).  In 
form  it  is  similar  to  the 
hoof.  The  anterior  or 
wall-surface  (a)  is  rough, 
like  pumice  stone.  Above 
and  in  front  is  the  pyram- 
idal eminence  to  which  the 
tendon  of  the  anterior  extensor  of  the  phalanges  attaches.  Be- 
hind, the  bone  extends  backward  to  form  the  inner  and  outer 


Os  suflFraginis  with  both  sesamoid  bones 
in  position,  as  in  Fig.  3  A,  os  suffraginis  ,  B, 
sesamoid  bones ;  a,  upper  joint-surface  of 
long  pastern ;  6,  joint-surface  of  sesamoid 
bones ;  c,  roughened  surface  at  upper  end ;  d, 
roughened  surface  at  lower  end,  both  for 
attachment  of  ligaments ;  e.  lower  joint  sur- 
face. 


Fig.  6. 


Short  pastern  (os  coronpe) 
viewed  in  front  and  in  pro- 
file :  o,  upper  joint-surface  ; 
b,  anterior  surface ;  c,  lat- 
eral surface ;  d,  lower  joint- 
surface. 


Short  pastern  seen 
from  behind  :  a,  smooth 
surface  over  which 
the  perforans  tendon 
glides;  b,  lower  joint- 
surface. 


HORSESHOEING. 


25 


branches  (c,  c)  or  wings  of  the  os  pedis.  The  vpper,  articular 
surface  (6)  slopes  backward  and  downward.  The  lower,  solar  or 
plantar  surface  (Fig.  8,  a)  is  slightly  concave,  and  presents  pos- 
teriorly a  half-moon-shaped  excavation,  with  a  roughened  bor- 
der called  the  semilunar  crest  (c),  to  which  the  perforans  tendon 
attaches ;  just  above  this  crest  are  two  small  holes  (e)  known  as 
the  plantar  foramina,  through  which  the  plantar  arteries  pass 
into  the  bone.  The  surfaces  of  wall  and  sole  come  together  in 
a  sharp  edge,  which  is  circular  in  its  course.     It  is  easy  to  tell 

Fig.  8. 


Os  pedis  seen  in  profile  and  in  front ;  a, 
anterior  face  with  pyramidal  eminence 
above ;  b,  joint-surface  ;  c,  wings  or  branches 
of  hoof-bone  ;  d,  notch  which,  by  the  attach- 
ment of  the  lateral  cartilage,  is  converted 
into  a  foramen  and  leads  to  e,  the  preplan- 
tar  fissure. 


Lower  surface  of  hoof-bone ;  a,  anterior 
portion  covered  by  the  velvety  tissue  of  the 
sole  ;  b,  wing  of  the  os  pedis ;  c,  semilunar 
crest,  to  which  the  perforans  tendon  at- 
taches ;  d,  plantar  fissure  leading  to  e,  plan- 
tar foramen. 


whether  a  pedal  bone  is  from  a  fore  or  a  hind  limb  ;  the  os  pedis 
of  a  hind  leg  has  a  steeper  and  more  pointed  toe,  and  a  more 
strongly  concaved  solar  surface  than  the  same  bone  of  a  foreleg. 
Not  only  is  the  outline  of  the  sharp  inferior  border  of  the  os 
pedis  of  a  front  foot  more  rounded  at  the  toe,  but  when  placed  on 
a  flat  surface  the  toe  does  not  touch  by  reason  of  being  turned 
slightly  upward,  much  as  a  shoe  designed  to  give  a  "  rolling 
motion.'"  The  os  pedis  of  a  hind  foot  is  narrower  from  side  to 
side  (pointed),  and  does  not  turn  vp  at  the  toe. 

The  right  and  left  hoof-bones  are  also,  as  a  rule,  easily  distin- 
guished by  variations  in  the  surfaces  of  wall  and  sole.    The  shape 


26  HORSESHOEING. 

of  the  OS  pedis  corresponds  to  the  form  of  the  horny  box  or  hoof, 
and  therefore  a  knowledge  of  this  bone  is  absokitely  necessary. 
The  navicular  bone  (os  naviculare,  nut-bone,  Figs.  9  and  10) 
is  an  accessory  or  sesamoid  bone  to  the  os  pedis.     It  is  a  small 

bone,     transversely     elongated 
Fig.  9.  Fig.  10.  and  situated  behind  and  below 

the  OS  pedis  and  between  tlie 
wings  of  the  latter.  It  adds  to 
the  articular  surface  of  the  pedal 

Fig.  9  represents  the  upper  surface  of  the  joiut.          Its  •    UUCler     SUrface     IS 

navicular  boue;  Fig.  10  the  lower  surftxce  of  gmooth,    and    acts    aS    a    gliding 

the  same :  a,  anterior  border ;  o,  slight  ele-  '                                           *^           ° 

vation  in  middle  of  undersurface.  SUrface  for  the  perforaUS  tend OU, 

which  is  quite  wide  at  this  point. 
The  long  axes  of  the  three  phalanges  (os  suffraginis,  os  co- 
ronee,  and  os  pedis)  should  unite  to  form  a  straight  line,  when 
viewed  either  from  in  front  or  from  one  side  ;  that  is,  the  direc- 
tion of  each  of  these  three  bones  should  be  the  same  as  the  com- 
mon direction  of  the  three  considered  as  a  whole. 

In  young  colts  both  the  long  and  short  pasterns  are  in  three  parts  and  the 
pedal  bone  in  two  parts,  all  of  which  unite  later  in  life  to  form  their  re- 
spective single  bones. 

In  mules  and  asses  the  os  pedis  is  comparatively  small  and  narrow.  In 
cattle  all  three  phalanges  are  double,  and  split  hoofs  cover  the  divided  os  pedis. 

B.  The  Articulations  of  the  Foot. 

There  are  three  articulations  in  the  foot — namely,  the  fetlock, 
coronary,  and  pedal  joints.  All  are  hinge-joints,  the  fetlock  being 
a  perfect  hinge-joint,  and  the  other  two  imperfect  hinge-joiiits. 
Each  has  a  caps^dar  ligament^  and  also  seYemlfioiicidar  or  cord- 
like UcjmnenU  wliich  are  placed  at  tiie  sides  of  (lateral  ligaments), 
or  behind  (on  the  side  of  flexion)  the  joints. 

I.  The  fetlock  or  metacarpo-phalangeal  articulation  is 
formed  by  the  condyles  at  the  lower  end  of  the  cannon  bone 
and  the  glenoid  cavities  formed  by  the  union  of  the  articular  sur- 
faces of  the  sesamoids  and  the  upper  end  of  the  first  phalanx. 
The  following  ligaments  are  about  this  joint : 


HORSESHOEING. 


27 


II.   Two  laterql  UgamenU.  an  external  and  an  internal  (Fig.  11,  a). 
2.   Two  lateral  sesamoid  ligaments  (/). 
3.  An  intersesamoid  ligament  (F\s.  12,  6),  a  thick,  fibrous  mass, 
binding     the    sesamoid 

bones  almost  immovably  Fig.  11. 

together,  extending 
above  them  and  pre- 
senting on  its  posterior 
face  a  smooth  groove,  in 
which  glide  the  flexor 
tendons  of  the  phalan- 
ges (perforans  and  per- 
foratus). 

4.  The  suspeiisory  liga- 
ment of  the  fetlock  (Figs. 
11,  c,  12,  e,  and  13,  c, 
pages  27  and  28.)  This 
may  also  be  called  the 
superior  sesamoid  liga- 
ment. It  is  a  long  and 
very  powerful  brace, 
originating  on  the  lower 
row  of  carpal  bones 
(bones  of  the  hock  in 
the  hind  leg)  and  on  the 
upper  end  of  the  cannon 
between  the  heads  of 
the_  two_   splint-bojies,  * 

andjjviding  at  the  lower  third  of  the  cannon  into  two  branches 
(c),  which  are  attached  one  to  each  sesamoid  bone.  Below  these 
bones  these  two  branches  are  prolonged  obliquely  downward 
and  forward  on  opposite  sides  of  the  long  pastern  to  pass  into 
the  borders  of  the  anterior  extensor  tendon  of  the  toe  at  about 
the  middle  of  the  long  pastern  (Fig.  14,  6',  page  30). 

5.  The  inferior  sesamoid  ligament  (Figs.  11,  d,  d' ,  12,  d,  d'.  and 


28 


HORSESHOEING. 


Fig.  12. 


Fig.  13. 


Fig.  11  shows  a  side  view,  anri  Figs.  12  and  13  a  posterior  view  of  the  jilialangeal  hones,  with 
their  articular  ligaments.  Tlie  lettering  is  the  same  in  all  three  figures :  a,  lateral  ligament 
of  fetlock-joint ;  b,  intersesamoid  ligament ;  c,  suspensory  ligament  of  the  fetlock  ;  d,  median 
branch  of  inferior  sesamoid  ligament ;  d',  lateral  brandies  of  inferior  sesamoid  ligament ;  e. 
deep  inferior  sesamoid  ligament ;  /,  lateral  sesamoid  ligaments ;  17,  inferior  coronary  liga- 
ments ;  /),,  sujierior  coronary  ligaments ;  h',  median  coronary  ligaments  ;  /,  lateral  pedal  liga- 
ment ;  k,  lateral  coronary  ligament  and  suspensory  ligament  of  the  navicular  bone ,  I,  inter- 
osseous ligament. 


13,  d,  d').     Tliis  originates  at  the  lowest  part  of  the  sesamoid 
bones  and  intersesamoid  ligament,  and  consists  of  three  parts  or 


HORSESHOEING.  29 

branches.  The  median  branch  (d)  is  the  longest  and  strongest, 
and  takes  its  lower  attachment  in  the  middle  of  the  fibro-carti- 
laginous  lip  found  on  the  upper  border,  of  the  posterior  face  of 
the  second  phalanx.  The  two  lateral  branches  {d')  approach  eacli 
other  as  they  descend,  and  terminate  on  the  sides  of  the  rougli- 
ened  triangle  on  the  posterior  face  of  the  first  phalanx. 

6.  Tlie  deep  inferior  sesamoid  ligament  (Fig.  13,  e)  is  c|uite  short, 
and  consists  of  a  number  of  distinct,  thin  fibrous  bands  lying 
directly  against  the  bone  and  entirely  covered  by  the  median 
and  lateral  inferior  sesamoid  ligaments.  These  fibrous  bands 
cross  one  another  in  passing  from  the  sesamoids  to  the  first 
phalanx. 

II.  The  coronary  joint  is  the  simplest  of  the  three  articula- 
tions of  the  foot.  The  long  pastern  furnishes  two  condyles  and 
the  short  pastern  two  glenoid  cavities.  Besides  a  capsular  liga- 
ment  there  are — 

1.  Two  lateral  coronary  ligaments  (k)  and, 

2.  Six  posterior  coronary  ligaments, — namely,  tw^  superior  cor- 
onary ligaments  (//),  tiro  median  coronary  ligaments  (/I'l,  and  two 
inferior  coronary  ligaments  {g). 

III.  The  pedal  articulation  ("coffin"  joint)  is  an_ imperfect 
hinge-joint,  and  is  formed  by  the  condyles  at  the  lower  end  of 
the  short  pastern  and  the  two  glenoid  cavities  in  the  united  upper 
surfaces  of  the  pedal  and  navicular  bones.  Besides  the  capsular 
ligament  (Figs.  12  and  13, 1),  which  binds  all  three  bones  together, 
there  are  the  following  accessory  ligaments : 

1.  Two  strong  late  red  ligaments,  an  external  and  an  internal 
(Fig.  11,  i),  ^^dlOse  posterior  borders  are  lost  in  thejateral.  caiti- 
Igges  which  cover  them. 

2.  Ttvo  Icdercd  snspen sory  ligaments  of  the  naj-icnlar  bone  (J:). 
They  begin  on  the  posterior  border  and  Qnds  of  the  navicular 
bone,  and  terminate  on  tlie  lower  part  of  the  anterior  surface  of 
th_e  OS  suffraginis,  where  they  are  lost  in  the  lateral  ligaments  of 
the  coronary._articuIation. 

3.  The  lateral  ligaments^oiiheJsLie.mLcariilages,navicidar  bone, 


30 


HORSESHOEING. 


Fig.  14. 


and  OS  pedis.     They  are  short,  and  unite  the  navicular  bone  with 

the  OS  pedis  and  lateral  cartilages. 

Of  the  three  phalangeal  articulations,  the  pedal  is  the  only  one 

that  permits  of  any  lateral  movement ;  hence  it  is  an  imperfect 

hinge-joint. 

V       C.  The  Locomotory  Organs  of  the  Foot. 
Though  the  muscles  are  the  organs  which  produce  motion,  the 

horseshoer  need  con- 
cern himself  only  with 
the  tendons  of  those 
muscles  which  extend 
and  flex  the  phalanges. 
These  tendons  are  either 
extensors  or  flexors. 
The  extensors  lie  on  the 
anterior  face  and  the 
flexors  on  the  posterior 
face  of  the  phalanges. 

The  anterior  extensor 
of  the  phalanges  (Fig. 
14,  a)  extends  the  long 
and  short  pasterns  and 
the  hoof-bone ;  it  is 
broad,  and  made  some- 
what broader  by  re- 
ceiving the  branches  of 
the  suspensory  ligament 
{h')  that  come  from  the 
sesamoid  bones.  It  takes 
a  firm  attachment  on  the 
pyramidal  eminence  of 
the  OS  pedis.  In  the 
foivlccl  (he  longpasterij 
li;i.^   a   spcrial    oxti'nsjQT 

tendon  (c),  which  is  known_as  the  lateral  c.vfciisor.     When  the 


Right  forefoot  viewed  from  in  front  and  from  the  ex- 
ternal side :  a,  anterior  extensor  tendon  of  the  toe  ;  b, 
suspensory  ligament  of  the  fetlock  ;  b',  branch  of  the  same 
passing  forward  and  uniting  with  the  extensor  tendon 
of  the  toe ;  c,  extensor  tendon  of  the  os  suifraginis  (ab- 
sent in  the  hind  leg),  called  the  lateral  extensor. 


HORSESHOEING. 


31 


muscles  to  which  these  tendons  are  attached  act, — that  is,  when 
they  draw  themselves  together,  or  contract,  as  we  term  this  action, 
— the  foot  is  carried  forward  (extended). 

Therej,reiMoj^(sa2Qr  tendons  of  tha pha- 
langes,— namely,  the  sujyejJicM  (perXor. 
rg-tus  tendon)  and  the  dee^  (perforans 
tendon). 

1.  The  superficial  flexor  or  perforatus 
tendon  (Figs.  15,  b,  and  16,  a,  b)  lies 
behind,  immediately  under  the  skin, 
and  covers  the  deep  flexor  or  perfo- 
rans tendon.  At  the  gliding  surface 
between  the  spsamoid  hnnps  (Fig.  15,/) 
it  broadens,  and  forms  a  ring  or  tube 
(Fig.  15,  6')  through  which  the  perforans 
tendon  [a'"}  passes,  while  a  short  dis- 
tance  farther  down  it .  bifurcates,  or 
divides  into  two  branches  (Figs.  15,  b'\ 
and  16,  6),  which  terminate,  one  on 
either  side,  partly  on  the  inferior  lateral 
borders  of  the  first  phalanx  and  partly 
on  the  fibro-cartilage  of  the  second 
phalanx.  It  acts  simultaneously  on  the 
long  and  short  pasterns. 

Right  forefoot  seen  from  behind  :  a,  lower  end  of  the 
perforans  tendon,  cut  through  and  hanging  down,  so 
that  its  anterior  surface  is  visilile  ;  a',  lower  expanded 
end  I'plantar  aponeurosis)  of  this  tendon,  which  attaclies 
itself  to  the  semilunar  crest  of  the  os  pedis ;  a",  shallow 
groove  which  receives  the  slight  elevation  on  the  vinder 
surface  of  the  navicular  bone ;  a'",  piece  of  the  perforans 
tendon  enclosed  by  the  ring  formed  by  the  perforatus 
tendon ;  6,  perforatus  tendon  bent  over  backward  so  tliat 

its  anterior  surface  is  ^asible ;  V,  ring  of  the  perforatus  tendon ;  6",  terminal  branches  of 
the  same ;  the  perforans  tendon  passes  through  the  space  between  these  two  branches ;  c, 
navicular  bone ;  d,  suspensory  ligament  of  the  same ;  e,  smooth  surface  on  the  os  coronte  over 
which  the  perforans  tendon  glides;/,  the  smooth  groove  (sesamoid  groove/  on  the  posterior 
surface  of  the  intersesamoid  ligament  for  the  gliding  of  the  perforans  tendon  ;  g,  body  of  the 
suspensory  ligament  of  the  fetlock ;  g',  terminal  branches  of  the  same,  attaching  to  the  sesa- 
moid bones. 


32 


HORSESHOEING. 


Fig 


fel!^.-' 


2.  The  deep  flexor  ov  perforans  tendon  (Figs.  15,  a,  and  16,  c) 
is  cylindrical  and  stronger  than  the  perforatus  tendon  ;  above  the 
fetlock-joint  it  hes  between  the  perfo- 
ratus and  the  suspensory  ligament  of  the 
fetlock.  At  the  sesamoid  bones  it  passes 
through  the  ring  formed  by  the  perfo- 
ratus tendon  (Fig.  15,  6'),  then  becomes 
broad  and  double-edged,  passes  between 
the  two  terminal  branches  of  the  perfo- 
ratus, glides  over  the  fibro-cartilage  of 
the  second  phalanx  and  over  the  inferior 
surface  of  the  navicular  bone,  and  finally 
ends  on  the  semilunar  crest  of  the  third 
phalanx.  In  common  with  the  perforatus 
tendon  it  flexes  the  foot. 

If  at  a  point  a  fev/  inches  above  the 
fetlock  a  limb  be  cut  through  from  be- 
hind, the  knife  will  pass  successively 
through  the  following  structures :  skin, 
perforatus  tendon,  perforans  tendon,  sus- 
pensory ligament,  cannon  bone,  lateral 
extensor  tendon,  anterior  extensor  ten- 
don, and,  lastly,  the  skin  on  the  anterior 
surface  of  the  limb.  The  flexor  tendons 
are  frequently  thickened  and  shortened 
by  inflammation  due  to  injury.,  and  as  a 
result  the  foot  is  pulled  backward  and  the 
hoof  gradually  becomes  more  nearly  up- 
right,— i.e.,  stubby,  steep-toed.  A  knowl- 
edge of  the  normal  condition  of  the  ten- 


Right  forefoot  seen  from  behind  and  a  little  from  the  external  side  :  a,  perforatus  tendon ; 
5,  terminal  branches  of  the  same;  c.  p(>rfnraii><  tendon  ;  r?,  annular  ligament  which  attaches 
to  the  sesamoid  bones  :  d',  the  "x"  liL^aiinni ,  w  hich  attaclies  itself  by  four  branches  to  the  OS 
snffragiijjg;  d,"  an  upper  branch  of  the  >aiiie  (the  lower  branches  are  not  shown  in  the  figure) ; 
e,  reinforcing  sheath  of  the  perforans  tendon,  covering  the  under  surface  of  the  latter  and 
attached  by  its  branches  at  e'  to  the  lower  end  of  the  os  suffraginis ;  /,  suspensory  ligament  ol 
the  fetlock. 


HORSESHOEING.  33 

dons  is,  therefore,  absolutely  necessary  to  the  horseshoer.  Both 
flexor  tendons  are  embraced  and  held  in  place  by  ligaments  and 
fascia  passing  out  from  the  phalanges  (Eigs.  16,  d\  and  20,  e,/). 
The  extensor  and  flexor  tendons  essentially  conlribute  to  the 
strong  union  of  the  phalangeal  bones,  and  especially  to  the  sup- 
poit  and  stability  of  the  fetlock-joint.  The  glichng  of  the  tendons 
is  made  easy  by  the  secretion  of  a  lubricating  fluid,  called  synovia, 
from  the  inner  surface  of  the  sheaths  which  surround  them.  In 
thin-skinned,  well-bred  horses  with  sound  limbs  one  can  not  only 
distinctly  feel  the  tendons  through  the  skin,  but  can  see  their  out- 
line. When  the  tendons  and  bones  are  free  from  all  inflammatory 
thickenings,  and  the  tendon  sheaths  are  not  visibly  distended,  we  say 
that  the  leg  is  "  clean.'' ^ 

Mucous  Bursse  and  Tendon.  Sheaths. 

Accessory  to  the  tendons,  there  are  in  the  foot  roundish, 
membranous  sacs  (mucous  bursge)  and  membranous  tubes  (ten- 
dmi  sheaths).  Both  contain  a  liquid  resembling  synovia  (''joint- 
water'"),  which  facilitates  the  gliding  of  the  tendons.  These 
bursse  and  sheaths  are  often  distended  to  form  soft  tumors, 
known  as  hygrom^ta  (••  wind-puffs,''  '•  wind-galls"). 

(a)  Mucous  Bursae. — They  lie  beneath  tendons  atjhose  places 
where  the  tendons  pass  over  bony  prominences. 

1.  The  mucous  bursa  of  the  anterior  extensor  tendon  of  the 
toe  is  about  the  size  of  a  walnut,  and  lies  between,  ihe.iendon 
and  the  cj,psular  ligament  of  the  fetlock-joint. 

2.  The  mucous  bursa  of  the  extensor  tendon  of  the  long  pas- 
tern (lateral  extensor)  is  somewhat  smaller,  and  lies,  likewise, 
beneath  the  tendon,  between  it  and  the  capsular  ligament  of  the 
feOock-joint. 

3.  The  mucous  bursa  of  the  navicular  region  lies  between  the 
UQder  surface  (gliding  surface)  of  the  navicular  bone  and  the 
flexor  pedis  perforana  tendon  (deep  flexor).  Its  width  equals 
the  length  of  the  navicular  bone,  and  it  extends  upward  and 
downward  beyond_tlie_bone.     Above,  it  is  separated  from  the 


34  HORSESHOEING. 

sheath  of  the  perforans  tendon  ("  great  sesamoid  she^")  by  a 
membranous  partition  ;  below,  it  passes  to  the  attacliment  of  the 
perforans  tendon  to  the  semikmar  crest  of  the  os  pedis. 
[  (6)  There  is  but  one  tendon  sheath  in  the  foot, — the  sheath 
'common  to  the  two  flexor  tendons  (great  sesamoid  sheath).  It 
encloses  the  flexor  tendons  from  the  middle  third  of  the  cannon 
down  to  the  middle  of  the  short  pastern,  and  is  intimately  united 
with  the  flexor  pedis  perforans  tendon. 

Altering'  the  Relative   Tension  of  the  Flexor  Tendons  and 
Suspensory  Ligament  of  the  Fetlock- Joint.* 

The  body-weight  imposed  at  the  fetlock-joint  is  supported,  in 
large  part,  by  the  suspensory  ligament ;  somewhat  less  weight  is 
borne  by  the  perforans  tendon,  and  a  still  smaller  amount  by  the 
perforatus.  The  coronary  joint  is  supported  chiefly  by  the  per- 
foratus,  assisted  by  the  perforans.  The  pedal  joint  is  pressed  for- 
ward and  upward  by  the  perforans  tendon  passing  in  a  curve 
beneath  the  navicular  bone.  Each  of  these  three  structures  bears 
its  normal  proportion  of  the  body-weight  when  the  three  pha- 
langes, as  viewed  from  the  side,  form  a  continuous  straight  line 
from  the  fetlock-joint  to  the  ground.  In  such  a  case  the  obliquity 
of  the  long  pastern  will  be  the  same  as  that  of  the  toe  (see 
Foot-Axis,  p.  65). 

Raising  the  toe  by  means  of  a  tip,  a  full  shoe  with  thinned 
branches  or  a  toe-calk,  or  paring  away  the  quarters  will  tilt  the 
OS  pedis  backward,  break  the  foot-axis  backward  in  the  pedal 
joint  and  to  a  less  extent  in  the  coronary  joint,  and  increase  the 
tension  of  the  perforans  tendon  considerably  and  of  the  perfo- 
ratus slightly.  These  tendons  tightening  behind  the  fetlock-joint 
force  it  forward,  causing  the  long  pastern  to  stand  steeper,  and 
taking  some  strain  from  the  suspensory  ligament.    Hence,  the  per- 

*  This  topic  is  not  a  part  of  the  original  text,  hut  is  reluctantly  offered 
by  the  translator  as  the  least  objectionable  matter  with  which  to  bridge  a  gap 
which  the  mysteries  of  book-making  have  created  in  Professor  Lungwitz's 
coherent  work. 


HORSESHOEING. 


35 


fprans  tendon  is  under  greatest  tension,  and  the  suspensory  ligainent 
under  least  tension,  vhen  the  foot-axis  is  broken  strongly  backward. 

Shortening  the  toe,  and  raising  the  quarters  by  heel-calks  or 
thickened  branches,  will  tilt  the  os  pedis  forward,  break  the  foot- 
axis  forward  in  the  pedal  joint,  and  somewhat  less  in  the  coronary 
joint,  and  will  greatly  lessen  the  tension  of  the  perforans,  and 
slightly  increase  the  tension  of  the  perfbratus.  The  aggregate  ten- 
sion of  these  two  structures  being  diminished,  the  fetlock  sinks 
downward  and  backward,  the  long  pastern  assumes  a  more 
nearly  horizontal  direction,  and  the  tension  of  the  suspensory 
ligament  is  increased.  Thus,  the  perforans  tendon  is  under  least 
tension,  and  the  suspensory  ligament  under  greatest  strain,  iQJ^nJhe 
foot-axis  is  broken  strongly  foriojg/r^. 

D.  The  Elastic  Parts  of  the  Foot. 

All  bodies  which  under  pressure  or  traction  change  their  form, 
but  return  again  to  their  original  shape  as  soon  as  the  press- 
ure or  traction  ceases,  are 

called  elastic  or  springy.  ^^'  ^'' 

Nearly  all  parts  of  the 
horse's  foot,  except  the 
bones,  possess  more  or 
less  elasticity.  The  lat- 
eral cartilages  and  the 
plantar  cushion  are  elastic 
to  a  high  degree,  but  the 
coronary  band,  the  lamina  . 
the  articular  cartilage, 
and  the  horny  box  or 
Aoo/ are  less  elastic.  This 
property  or  characteristic 
is  possessed  by  the  re- 
spective parts  of  the  foot  in  accordance  with  their  function, 
location,  and  structure. 

The  two  lateral  cartilages  (Fig,  17,  C)  are  irregular,  quad- 


Right  toretoot  \'iewed  from  the  external  side :  A,  os 
coronae  ;  B,  os  pedis ;  C,  external  lateral  cartilage ;  a, 
lateral  pedal  ligament ;  b,  ligament  uniting  the  lateral 
cartilage  with  the  os  coronee ;  c,  aponeurosis  joining  lat- 
eral cartilage  and  os  pedis. 


36 


HORSESHOEING. 


rang'ular  plates,  attached  to  the  wings  of  the  os  pedis,  and  ex- 
tending so  far  upward  and  backward  that  one  can  feel  them 
yield  to  pressure  on  the  skin  above  the  coronet,  and  can  thus 
test  their  elasticity.  The  perforans  tendon  and  the  plantar 
cushion  He  between  the  lateral  cartilages,  and  on  the  sides  and 
behind  are  partially  enclosed  by  them.  The  Internal  concave  sur- 
face of  the  lateral  cartilage  Is  attached  to  the  plantar  cushion,  the 
OS  pedis,  and  the  navicular  bone,  and,  hke  the  external,  slightly 
convex  surface,  Is  covered  with  many  blood-vessels  (veins'. 

The  plantar  cushion  (Figs.   18  and  19)  is  composed  almost 
entirely  of  yellow  elastic  and  white  fibrous  tissues,  with  adipose 


Fig.  19. 


Fig.  18. 


4i^     X 


Plantar  cushion  seen  from  be- 
low :  a,  base  or  bulb  of  the  plantar 
cushion ;  h,  summit ;  c,  median 
lacuna  or  cleft  in  which  lies  the 
"  frog-stay"  of  the  homy  frog. 


Plantar  cushion  seen  from  above :  a,  base 
(bulbs)  of  same  ;  h,  summit ;  c,  supensory  liga- 
ment of  plantar  cushion  ;  d,  place  at  which  the 
elastic  ligament  connecting  the  os  suttraginis 
and  the  lateral  cartilage  unites  with  the  plan- 
tar cushion. 


{fat)  Qglls  distributed  throughput  their  substance.  It  is  similar 
in  form  to  the  horny  frog,  and  lies  between  it  and  the  perfo- 
rans tendon  (Fig.  20,  «).  The  bulbs  are  formed  by  the  pos- 
terior thicker  portion  which  lies  between  the  lateral  cartilages 
and  is  divided  Into  two  parts  by  the  cleft  or  median  lacuna  (Fig. 
18,  c).  The  siinimit  is  attached  to  the  plantar  face  of  the  os 
pedis  in  front  of  the  semilunar  crest,  and  the  bulbs  are  attached 
to  the  lateral  cartilages.  It  is  covered  inferiorly  by  the  velvety 
tissue  of  the  frog  (pododerm). 


HORSESHOEING. 


37 


E.  The  Blood- Vessels  and  Nerves. 

Vessels  which  carry  blood  from  the  heart  to  the  tissues  are 
called  arteries,  while  those  which  return  the  blood  to  the  heart 

Arteries  and  veins  are  con- 


FiG.  20. 


from  the  tissues  are  called  veins, 
nected  by  very  small,  thread-like 
vessels  called  cajjillaries,  which 
originate  in  the  smallest  arteries 
and  are  so  minute  that  they  can 
not  be  seen  without  the ^  aid  of 
a  microscope.  The  capillaries 
penetrate  the  soft  tissues  in  every 
direction,  and  finally  unite  to 
form  small  veins.  For  our  pur- 
pose we  need  consider  only  the 
arteries  and  veins. 

The  arteries  carrying  blood 
from  the  heart  ramify  and  subdi- 
vide in  all  parts  of  the  body,  and 
thus  reach  the  foot.     They  are 

Right  forefoot  viewed  from  below,  behind, 
and  the  external  side.  This  figure  snows 
clearly  the  position  of  the  plantar  cushion. 
The  external  lateral  cartilage  and  the  tissues 
covering  the  plantar  cushion  and  under  sur- 
face of  the  OS  pedis  (velvety  tissue  of  the  sole 
and  fleshy  frog)  have  been  removed  :  a,  fleshy 
frog  or  plantar  cushion ;  o',  buUas  of  plantar 
cushion ;  the  remaining  visible  parts  belong  to 
the  so-called  "  fleshy  frog  ;"  a",  groove  (median 
lacuna)  in  the  lower  surface  of  the  fleshy  frog, 
in  which  lies  the  frog-stay  of  the  horny  frog ; 
6,  suspensory  ligament  of  the  plantar  cushion 
passing  out  of  the  bulbs ;  b',  small  elastic  cords 
passing  to  the  lateral  cartilage  ;  c,  elastic  liga- 
ment coming  from  the  lateral  cartilage  and 
uniting  with  the  suspensory  ligament  of  the 
plantar  cushion  ;  d,  small  tendinous  cord  be- 
ginning in  the  skin  behind  the  fetlock-joint 
and  ending  on  the  os  suffraginis  in  common  with  6  and  c ;  e,  tendinous  reinforcing  sheath  of 
the  ]ierforans  tendon  ;  /,  reinforcing  stay  of  the  perforatus  tendon ;  g,  perforatus  tendon  ;  h, 
perforans  tendon  ;  i,  suspensory  ligament  of  the  fetlock  ;  k,  plantar  surface  of  the  os  pedis,  to 
which  the  plantar  cushion  is  joined  by  fibrous  bands. 


38 


HORSESHOEING. 


thick-walled,  very  elastic  tubes,  without  valves,  and  carry 
brig-ht-red  blood,  which  flows  in  spurts,  as  can  be  seen  when  an 
artery  is  cut.     If  a  finger  be  pressed  lightly  over  an  artery  lying 


Fig.  21. 


^  /"   /■     /■' 

Side  view  of  forefoot,  showing  blood-vessels  and  nerves :  a,  digital  artery ;  h,  anterior  artery 
of  the  OS  suffragiuis ;  d,  anterior  cofonary  artery,  or  circumflex  artery  of  the  coronet ;  e'  pre- 
plantar  ungual  artery ;  /',  inferior  communicating  arteries  passing  out  from  the  semilunar 
artery  of  the  os  pedis,  through  minute  holes  just  above  the  lower  border  of  the  bone ;  they 
unite  to  form  (/")  the  circumflex  artery  of  the  toe;  A,  digital  vein;  5,  superficial  venous 
plexus  of  coronary  band  and  lateral  cartilage ;  C,  podophyllous  venous  plexus ;  G,  circumflex 
vein  of  the  toe ;  1,  plantar  nerve  ;  2,  anterior  digital  branch  of  same ;  3.  posterior  digital  branch 
of  same  ;  4,  small  cutaneous  branches  of  same. 

near  the  surface,  the  blood-wave  can  be  felt  as  a  light  stroke 
(pulse).  The  character  of  the  pulse  is  important,  because  in 
inflainmations  of  the  pododerm  or  horn-producing  membrane 
of  the  foot  we  can  ascertain  by  feeling  that  the  pulse  is  stronger 


HORSESHOEING.  39 

than  usual  in  the  large  arteries  carrying  blood  to  the  inflamed 
foot. 

On  either  side  of  the  phalanges  below  the  fetlock-joint  there 
hes  an  artery  called  the  digital  artery  (Fig.  21,  a).  The  pulse 
can  be  felt  in  it  as  it  passes  over  the  fetlock  at  A,  Fig.  21.  li 
gives  off  the  following  cohateral  (side)  branches:  1.  The  artery 
of  the  first  phalanx  (perpendicular  artery,  with  anterior  and  pos- 
terior branches.  2.  The  artery  of  the  plantar  cushion,  which  sup- 
plies with  blood  the  plantar  cushion,  the  velvety  tissue  of  the 
sole  and  frog,  the  bar  portion  of  the  coronary  band,  and  the  sen- 
sitive laminae  of  the  bars.  3.  The  coronary  artery,  which  carries 
blood  to  the  coronary  band,  os  coronae,  ligaments  of  the  coronary 
and  pedal  joints,  flexor  tendons,  and  skin. 

The  terminal  branches  of  the  digital  arteries  are  the  preplan- 
tar  and  plantar  ungual  arteries.  The  preplantar  artery  passes 
through  the  notch  in  the  wing  of  the  os  pedis,  then  along  the 
preplantar  fissure,  splitting  up  into  many  branches,  Avhich  spread 
over  and  penetrate  the  porous  surface  of  the  os  pedis.  The 
plantar  artery  courses  along  the  plantar  fissure,  enters  the 
plantar  foramen,  and  passes  into  the  semilunar  sinus  of  the  os 
pedis,  where  it  unites  with  the  terminal  branch  of  the  opposite 
digital  artery,  forming  the  semi-lunar  arch. 

After  the  arterial  or  pure  blood  passes  through  the  capillaries 
it  is  collected  by  the  veins,  to  be  returned  to  the  heart ;  then  it 
is  driven  to  the  lungs  for  purification,  and  is  again  returned  to  the 
heart,  from  whence  it  is  pumped  through  the  arteries  to  all  parts 
of  the  body. 

The  veins  are  more  numerous  than  the  arteries ;  they  have 
thinner  walls,  and  the  larger  ones  are  provided  with  valves 
that  prevent  the  impure  blood  from  flowing  backward.  The 
veins  carry  impure  or  dark-red  blood  towards  the  heart,  and 
if  one  is  opened  the  dark  blood  flows  in  a  steady  stream  ;  it 
does  not  spurt.  The  great  number  of  veinlets  in  the  lower  parts 
of  the  foot  form  a  complex  net-work  (plexus)  of  vessels  which 
are   in  such  manifold  and  close  union  with    one  another  that 


40 


HORSESHOEING. 


Fig.  22. 


checking  the  flow  of  blood  in  one  part  does  not  seriously  inter- 
fere with  the  flowing  of  the  blood  towards  the  larger  veins.  The 
following  are  the  most  important  of  these  net-works  of  veins  or 

venous  plexuses :  (1)  the 
solar  re7ious  plexus  (Fig.  22, 
D) ;  (2)  the  podophyllous 
venous  plexus  (Fig.  21,  C )\ 
(3)  superficial  coronary  ve- 
nous plexus  (Fig.  21,  B) ;  (4) 
bulbar  venous  pjlexus  (Fig. 
22,  B).  All  these  plexuses 
of  small  veins  contribute  to 
form  the  digital  veins  (Figs. 
21  and  22  A). 

Nerves  are  roundish 
white  cords  which  come 
from  the  brain  and  spinal 
cord ;  they  generally  accom- 
pany arteries.  They  divide 
and  subdivide  into  smaller 
and  smaller  branches  till 
they  become  invisible  to  the 
naked  eye  and  are  lost  in 
the  tissues.  The  nerves 
that  are  found  in  the  foot 
come  from  the  spinal  cord, 

Foot  viewed  from  below  and  behind :  a,  digital  and      bccaUSC      the      largest 
arteries ;   c,  arteries  of  the   plantar  cushion  :   f".  e    t^        e      i 

small  branches  of  the  semilunar  artery  of  the  o^  ^^^rVCS    of    the    loot    aCCOlU- 

pedis,  which  ramify  in  the  velvety  tissue  of  the  sole  ;  pauy  the  digital  arteries  they 
A,  digital  vein ;   B,  venous  plexus  of  the  heels  or  ■,-,-,        i-    -^    j 

bulbs ;  Z),  solar  venous  plexus  ;<?,  circinnflex  vein  ^^^       CalleQ       digital      QierveS 

of  the  toe;  3,  posterior  digital  branch  of  the  plantar  (Eiq-.   21     1).       The  branches 
nerve  ;  4,  cutaneous  branches  of  the  same.  -p      I'l 

ramify  throughout  all  parts 
of  the  foot  except  the  horny  box  and  the  hair.  Nerves,  according 
to  their  use  or  function,  are  classed  as  motor  and  sensori/.  The 
motor  nerves  end  in  muscles  which  they  stimulate  to  action  and 


HORSESHOEING. 


41 


control.  The  sensory  nerves  terminate  in  the  skin  and  in  the 
soft  tissues  just  under  the  horny  box  or  lioof  (pododerm),  and 
render  these  parts  sensitive  ;  that  is,  they  convey  certain  feelings, 
as,  for  example,  the  pain  caused  by  bruising,  pricking,  or  close- 
nailing,  to  the  brain  and  consciousness. 

F.  The  Protective  Organs  of  the  Foot. 

The  protective  organs  are  the  skin  and  the  horny  box  or  hoof. 

The  external  ftkin,  or  hide,  covers  the  entire  body  ;  in  the  feet  it 
covers  the  bones,  tendons,  and  ligaments,  even  passing  in  under 
the  hoof  and  directly  covering  the  os  pedis.  This  portion  of 
the  skin,  enclosed  by  the  hoof  and  therefore  invisible,  is  called 
the  pododerm  or  foot-skin.  In  Germany  it  is  called  the  hoof-skin 
(huflederhaut),  because  it  is 

a  cqntinuatioii_of  the  outer  Fig.  23. 

\isible  skin,  and  because  it 
secretes  the  hoof. — that  is, 
the  hoof  is  produced  by 
it.  That  part  of  the  skin 
which  is  covered  Avith  hair 
is  known  as  the  external  or 
hair-skin. 

(a)  The  hair-skin  (Fig. 
23,  a)  consists  of  tJiree  su- 
perposed layers, — (1)  the 
external  superficial  layer,  or 
epidermis;  (2)  the  middle 
layer,  derm  or  leather-skin 
(so-called  because  leather 
is  made  from  it) ;  (3)  the 
internal  layer,  or  subcuta- 
neous connective  tissue. 

1.  The  external  layer,  or  epidermis,  is  composed  merely  of  single 
flattened,  horn-like  cells  (scales)  lying  side  by  side  and  over  one 
another,  and  uniting  to  form  one  entire  structure, — a  thin,  horn- 


Foot  from  which  the  horny  rupHilc.  .ir  lioof,  has 
heen  removed  by  prolonged  soaking  :  o,  skin  ;  on 
the  left  the  hair  has  been  nibbed  away ;  6,  perioplic 
hand  :  c,  coronary  cushion  ;  d,  podophyllous  tissue 
(fleshy  leaves) ;  at  the  lower  border  of  the  figure 
can  he  seen  the  minute  thread-like  processes  or 
villi  which  grow  down  from  the  lower  end  of  each 
fleshy  leaf. 


>7*«^^auw.  u^. 


^MXijt^JuJi<i^' 


Pui'-t-t'-t-^ 


42 


HORSESHOEING. 


Fig.  24. 


like  layer,  without  blood-vessels  or  nerves.  It  extends  over  the 
entire  surface  of  the  body,  and  protects  the  underlying,  very  sen- 
sitive middle  layer  from  external  influences.  The  oldest  cell- 
layers  lie  on  the  outer  surface,  and  are  being  continuously  brushed 
off  in  patches  or  scales,  vv^hile  new  ones  are  constantly  being 
formed  on  the  outer  surface  of  the  middle  layer. 

2.  The  middle  layer,  leather-skin  or  dermis,  is  composed  of 
solid,  fibrous,  and  elastic  tissues,  and  contains  many  blood-ves- 
sels, small  nerves,  sweat-  and  oil-glands,  and  hair  follicles  from 
which  the  hair  grows.  The  hair  upon  the  posterior  surface  of 
the  fetlock-joint  is  usually  long  and  coarse,  forming  a  tuft  known 

as  the  "  footlock,"  which 
encloses  a  horny  spur, 
called  the  ergot.  Common 
bred  horses  have,  as  a  rule, 
larger  and  coarser  foot- 
locks  than  thoroughbreds. 
The  derm  or  leather-skin, 
Avhich  produces  the  hair 
and  epiderm,  is  the  thick- 
est and  most  important 
layer  of  the  skin. 

3.  ITie  inner  layer,  or 
subcutaneous  tissue,  unites 
the  middle  layer  with 
the  muscles,  tendons,  liga- 
ments, bones,  or  other 
structures.  It  is  that  loose 
fibrous  mesh  or  net-work 


Foot  from  which  the  near  half  of  the  homy  wall  and 
a  greater  part  of  the  so-called  fleshy  wall  have  been 
removed,  in  order  to  show  the  relation  of  the  lateral 
cartilage  to  adjacent  structures  :  a,  vertical  section  of 
the  skin  prolonged  downward  througli  the  pododerm 
(foot-skin  1  to  show  clearly  that  the  latter  is  but  a  con- 
tinuation of  tlie  former ;  n',  hairless  place  on  the  slvin  ; 
6,  purioplic  band  ;  5',  line  indicating  the  upper  border 
of  the  same ;  b",  surface  of  section  of  the  periople,  or 
perioplic  horn-band ;  c,  coronary  cushion ;  &,  (left) 
line  which  marks  the  upper  border  of  the  coronary 
cushion  ,  c",  section  of  wall  at  the  toe ;  d,  podophyl- 
lous  tissue  (sensitive  laminse) ;  e,  horny  sole  ;  /,  white 
line  ;  g,  horny  frog  ;  h,  fleshy  frog ;  i,  lateral  cartilage. 


through  which  the  butcher 


cuts  in  removing  the  hide 
from  the  carcass. 

(b)  The  hoof-skin  (Figs. 
23  and  24,  b,  c,  d ),  or  po- 
doderm, is  completely  enclosed  by  the  hoof.    Although  it  is  only 


( 


HORSESHOEING.  43 

an  extension  of  the  derm  or  middle  layer  of  the  hair-skin,  it 
differs  from  the  latter  in  structure  and  relations. 

In  order  to  study  the  pododerm  we  should  not  wrench  the 
hoof  off  with  violence,  but  should  allow  the  foot  to  partially  de- 
compose by  leaving  it  for  six  to  eight  days  in  ordinary  room  tem- 
perature ;  it  can  then  be  removed  without  injuring  the  pododerm. 
After  the  hoof  has  been  removed  the  entire  pododerm  presents 
a  more  or  less  dark-red  color  (flesh-color),  which  is  due  to  the 
great  number  of  blood-vessels  that  it  contains.  For  this  reason 
different  parts  of  the  pododerm  have  received  the  prefix  "fleshy," 
as  for  example,  fleshy  wall,  fleshy  sole,  fleshy  frog,  etc.  The 
pododerm  is  what  the  uninformed  horseshoer  calls  the  "  quick." 
I  will  here  remark  that  the  three  layers  of  the  external  or  hair- 
skin  are  represented  in  the  foot ;  however,  the  epidermis  is  in ' 
an  entirely  different  form, —  namely,  the  horny  box  or  hoof.  The ' 
internal  layer  or  subcutaneous  tissue  of  the  hair-skin  is  absent 
in  those  parts  of  the  foot  where  the  pododerm  covers  the  os  pedis. 
There  remains,  therefore,  only  the  middle  layer,  derm,  or  podo- 
derm, which  secretes  the  hoof,  and  which  is  the  prolongation  and 
representative  of  the  middle  layer  of  the  hair-skin.  The  podo- 
derm is  distinguished  from  the  derm  of  the  hair-skin  chiefly  by 
the  absence  of  hairs,  oil-  and  sweat-glands,  and  the  presence  on 
its  outer  surface  of  fleshy,  sensitive  laminae  and  small  thread- 
like projections  called  pUi. 

The  pododerm  consists  of  f^  different  parts:  the  periopl'iG 
band,  the  coronary  hand,  the  sensitive  laming  (podophyllous  tissue), 
the  velvety  tissue  of  the  sole,  and  the  velvety  tissue  of  the  fleshy  frog. 

I.  jflte  jierioplic  band  (Fig.  23,  6)  is  a  narrow  ridge,  about  one- 
fifth  to  one-fourth  of  an  inch  wide,  lying  between.  the_hair-skin 
and  the  coronary  band.  Somewhat  broader  at  the  toe  than  on 
the  sides,  it  broadens  out  near  the  bulbs  of  the  heels,  over  which 
it  passes  to  end  in  the  velvety  tissue  of  the  fleshy  frog.  It  is 
separated  from  the  coronary  band  by  a  narrow  depression  called 
the  coronary  furrow  (Moeller).  The  surface  of  the  perioplic  band 
ghstens  faintly,  and  is  thickly  studded  with  numerous  thread- 


44 


HORSESHOEING. 


Fig.  25 


like  projections  called  villi,  wliich  are  from  one-twenty-fifth  to 
one-twelfth  of  an  inch  in  length.  The  perioplic  band  secretes 
the  soft  horn  of  the  perioplic  ring  and  the  periople  or  varnish- 
like outer  layer  of  the  ■wall. 

2.  The  coronary  band  (Fig.  23,  c)  lies  between  the  perioplic 
band  and  the  sensitive  laniinge  or  fleshy  leaves.  It  presents  a 
prominent  convex  band  or  cushion  about  four-fifths  of  an  inch 
Ayide.  which  extends  entirely  around  the  foot  from  one  bulb  of 
the  heel  to  the  other.  In  front  it  directly  covers  the  anterior 
extensor  tendon  of  the  toe,  and  at  the  sides  the  lateral  surfaces 
of  the  OS  coronse  and  the  upper  part  of  the  lateral  cartilages, 
Avhile  farther  back  towards  the  heels  the  lateral  cartilages  pro- 
ject considerably  above  both  coronary  and  perioplic  bands.    The 

coronary  band  is  more  convex 
(rounded)  in  front  than  on  the 
sides  of  the  foot,  and  is  flattened 
iji  the  region  of  the  bulbs  of  the 
heels.  Its  siirface  is  thickly  cov- 
ered with  villi,  which  are  longer 
and  stronger  than  those  of  the 
perioplic  band.  At  the  bulbs  of 
the  heels  the  coronary  band  turns 
forward  and  inward  along  the  fleshy 
frog  nearly  to  its  summit.  This  por- 
tion of  the  coronary  band  is  from 
one-third  to  one-half  an  inch  wide, 
Plantar  surtace  m  u  f„ot  iieprived  of    aucl  is  Called  the  bar  }Jortion  of  the 

Its  hornj  capMile  b\  prolonged  macera-  /         7        ti    •        i  ^         j 

tion:  a,  lamina,  of  the  bars;  b,  velvety    Coronary  band.     It  IS  also  covered 

with  villi,  which  are  directly  con- 
tinuous with  those  of  the  fleshy 
frog.  The  coronary  band  secretes 
the  principal  part  (middle  layer) 
of  the   horny   -wall  of  the   hoof, 

including  the  bar  portion  (bars)  of  the  wall. 

3.  The  fleshy  wall,  or  podophyllous  tissue  (Figs.  23,  24,  d,  and  25, 


^^^^ia^fc^ 


tissue  of  the  sole ;  c,  velvety  tissue  of  the 
frog ;  d,  median  cleft  of  the  fleshy  frog, 
into  which  the  velvety  tissue  dips ;  e, 
bulbar  portion  of  the  i)erioplic  band, 
which  passes  insensibly  into  the  velvety 
tissue  of  the  fleshy  frog. 


HORSESHOEING.  45 

«),  is  all  that  portion  of  the  podoclerm  on  which  there  are  fleshy 
leaves.  This  leaty  tissue  covers  the  anterior  surface  of  the  os 
pedis  and  the  lower  portion  of  the  external  surface  of  the  lateral 
cartilages.  At  the  hulbs  of  the  heels  it  turns  inward  at  a  sharp 
angle  and  extends  forward  and  inward,  between  the  bar  portion 
of  the  coronary  band  and  the  posterior  part  of  the  velvety  tissue 
of  the  sole,  nearly  to  the  middle  of  the  solar  surface  of  the  foot,  to 
form  the  landnce  of  the  barf^  (Fig.  25,  a).  The  fleshy  wall  and  fleshy 
bars  are  not  covered  with  villi,  but  with  numerous  prominent, 
parallel,  fleshy  leaves  placed  close  together,  each  of  which  runs  in 
a  straight  line  downward  and  forward  from  the  coronary  band  to 
the  lower  border  of  the  os  pedis.  Between  the  fleshy  leaves  are 
deep  furrows  in  which,  in  a  foot  wnich  has  not  been  deprived  of 
its  horny  capsule,  lie  the  horny  or  insensitive  leaves  of  the  wall. 
The  fleshy  leaves  (podophyllous  laminae)  are  related  to  one 
another  somewhat  as  the  leaves  of  a  book  ;  their  posterior  bor- 
ders are  attached  to  the  body  or  basement  membrane  of  the 
fleshy  wall,  while  their  anterior  borders  and  sides  are  free.  At 
their  upper  ends  immediately  below  the  coronary  band  the 
leaves  are  c{uite  narrow,  but  they  gradually  increase  in  width 
down  to  the  middle,  and  thereafter  maintain  that  breadth  to  the 
lower  border  of  the  os  pedis,  where  they  terminate  in  free, 
fleshy  villi,  which  differ  in  no  respect  from  those  of  the  fleshy 
sole.  The  number  and  length  of  the  fleshy  leaves  vary ;  in  a 
medium-sized  foot  there  are  about  five  hundred,  while  in  a  large 
foot  there  may  be  as  many  as  six  hundred.  On  the  anterior  sur- 
face of  the  OS  pedis  the  leaves  are  thickest  and  longest ;  on  the 
sides  and  quarters  they  gradually  decrease  in  length,  while  in 
the  bar  region  they  are  the  shortest  and  gradually  disappear 
near  the  anterior  ends  of  the  bars.  The  width  of  the  leaves 
decreases  as  they  become  shorter.  Viewed  with  the  naked 
eye  the  leaves  appear  flat  and  smooth,  but  under  the  micro- 
scope one  can  see  on  both  sides  of  a  fleshy  leaf  numerous 
small,  fleshy  leaflets,  parallel  to  one  another  and  extending 
lengthwise  with  the  larger  leaf.     The  large  ones  are  called  prin- 


46 


HORSESHOEING. 


Fig 


cipal  leaves,  and  the  small  ones  are  known  as  collateral  leaves,  or 

simply  as  leaflets. 

The  fleshy  leaves  (podophyllous  tissue)  secrete  the  horny 

leaves  (keraphyllous  tissue)  and  serve  to  bind  the  horny  wall 

to  the  pododerm.     The  strength  of  this  union  is  due  largely 

to  the  dovetailing-  of  the 
horny  leaves  and  their 
leaflets  with  the  fleshy 
leaves  and  their  leaflets. 
4.  The  fleshy  sole  or 
velvety  tissue  of  the  sole 
(Fig,  25,  b)  is  that  part  of 
the  pododerm  which  cov- 
ers all  the  under  surface 
of  the  foot  except  the 
plantar  cushion,  the  bar 
o..     •      ^u    ^        .1  T      *T,       ■    V     laminae,    and      tlie     bar 

Side  view  of  hoof  recently  removed  :  a,  the  penopnc  _       ' 

horn-band;  it  is  swollen  from  prolonged  maceration  in  portion  of  the  COrOliary 
water ;  the  upper  border  shows  adhering-  hairs ;  the 
inner  surface  (perioplic  groove)  presents  many  minute 
openings ;  a',  the  perioplic  horn-band  broadens  in 
passing  over  the  bulb  or  glome  of  the  heel,  and  is 
finally  lost  in  the  horny  frog ;  a",  section  of  wall  re- 
moved. That  part  of  hoof  on  the  right  of  b  is  called 
the  toe  ;  between  b  and  c  is  the  side  wall  or  "  mamma," 
and  between  c  and  d  the  "quarter;"  e,  projecting 
horny  frog;  /,  coronary  groove  with  numerous  minute 
openings  ;  g,  keraphyllous  layer  of  the  wall  (horny 
leaves). 


band.  It  is  sometimes 
slate-colored  or  studded 
with  black  spots,  but  is 
usually  dark  red.  It  is 
thickly  set  with  villi, 
which  are  especially  long 
and  strong*  near  its  pe- 
riphery. The  fleshy  sole 
covers  the  solar  venous  plexus,  or  net-work  of  veins,  and  se- 
cretes the  horny  sole. 

5.  The  velvety  tissue  of  tJte  fror/  (Fig.  25,  c)  covers  the  lower 
surface  of  the  plantar  cushion,  and  in  the  region  of  the  bulbs  {e) 
passes  insensibly  into  the  perioplic  band.     In  comparison  with 

*  In  order  to  see  the  length,  thicknes?,  and  abundance  of  the  villi  of  the 
pododerm,  place  the  foot  deprived  of  its  hoof  in  a  clear  glass  jar  and  cover 
it  with  water,  renewing  the  latter  until  it  is  no  longer  tinged  with  blood. 
The  result  is  astonishing. 


HORSESHOEING.  47 

the  fleshy  sole,  it  has  much  finer  and  shorter  vilh  and  contains 
fewer  blood-vessels.     It  secretes  the  soft,  horny  frog-. 

(c)  The  horn  capsule  or  hoof  (Fig.  26)  is  the  entire  mass  made 
up  of  the  horn-cells  secreted  from  the  whole  surface  of  the  podo- 
derm,  and  next  to  the  shoe  is  the  organ  with  which  the  horse- 
shoer  has  most  to  do.  The  horn  capsule  or  hoof  is  nothing  more 
than  a  very  thick  epidermis  that  protects  the  horse's  foot,  just  as 
a  well-fitting  shoe  protects  the  human  foot.  The  hoof  of  a  sound 
foot  is  so  firmly  united  with  the  underlying  pododerm  that  only 
an  extraordinary  force  can  separate  them.  In  its  normal  condi- 
tion the  hoof  exactly  fits  the  soft  structures  within  it ;  hence  it  is 
evident  that  local  or  general  contraction  of  the  hoof  must  pro- 
duce pressure  on  the  blood-vessels  and  nerve-endings  of  the 
pododerm,  disturb  the  circulation  of  the  blood  and  the  nutrition 
of  the  foot,  and  cause  pain. 

The  hoof  is  divided  into  three  principal  parts,  which  are 
solidly  united  in  the  healthy  foot, — namely,  the  wall,  the  sole, 
and  the  frog.  That  part  of  the  hoof  which  is  almost  wholly 
visible  when  the  foot  is  on  the  ground  (Fig.  26,  h,  e),  and  which 
protects  the  foot  in  front  and  upon  the  sides,  is  known  as  the 
wall.  In  position,  course,  direction,  and  arrangement  of  its 
parts  it  simulates  the  different  parts  of  the  pododerm  from 
which  it  is  developed.  It  extends  from  the  edge  of  the  hair  just 
above  the  coronary  band  to  the  ground  ;  backward  it  gradually 
decreases  in  height  (length),  passes  around  the  bulbs  of  the  heels, 
and  turns  forward  and  inward  (Fig.  28,  o,  h)  to  form  the  bart., 
which  are  finally  lost  in  the  edge  of  the  sole  near  the  summit  of 
the  frog.  It  thus  forms  at  each  heel  an  angle  (Fig,  27,  d)  known 
as  a  buttress,  which  encloses  a  branch  of  the  horny  sole.  Exter- 
nally the  wall  is  smooth,  covered  with  the  varnish-like  periople, 
and  presents  indistinct  rlng-Hke  markings  (Fig,  26),  Its  inner 
surface,  on  the  contrary,  presents  a  great  number  of  horn-leaves 
which  are  spoken  of  collectively  as  the  l^eraphyllous  tissue 
(Fig.  29,/),  The  upper  or  coronary  border  of  the  w^all  is  thin 
and  flexible,  and  on  its  inner  aspect  is  the  coronary  groove,  into 


48 


HORSESHOEING. 


which  fits  the  coronary  band  (Fig.  26,/),  The  lower  border  of 
the  wall,  called  the  "  bearing-edge"  ov  plantar  border  (Fig.  27,  a), 
is  the  one  to  which  the  horseshoe  is  fastened.  By  dividing  a  hoof 
from  before  to  behind  along  its  median  line,  outer  and  mner  halves 
or  loalls  are  produced,  and  by  dividing  the  entire  lower  circum- 
ference of  the  wall  into  five  ec|ual  parts  or  sections,  a  toe,  two 

side  walls  or  mammae,  and 
two  quarters  will  be  exhib- 
ited (Fig.  27,  «,  6,  c).  In 
order  to  designate  these  re- 
gions of  the  hoof  still  more 
accurately,  they  are  spoken 
of  as  outer  and  inner  toes, 
quarters,  and  heels. 

The  direction  (slant)  and 
length  of  the  wall  vary  in  one 
and  the  same  hoof,  as  well 
as  between  fore  and  hind 
hoofs.  The  toe  portion  of 
the  wall  of  fore  hoofs  is 
the  most  slanting, — that  is, 
forms  the  most  acute  angle 
with  the  surface  of  the 
ground, — and  is  also  the 
longest.  Towards  the  quar- 
ters the  wall  gradually  be- 
comes very  nearly  vertical ; 
in  almost  all  hoofs  the  pos- 
terior part  of  the  quarters 
slants  downward  and  in- 
ward towards  the  median  vertical  antero-posterior  plane  of  the 
foot.  At  the  same  time  the  wall,  in  passing  back  from  the  toe  to 
the  heel,  becomes  gradually  shorter  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
heights  of  the  toe,  side  walls,  and  quarters  are  related  to  one 
another  about  as  3  :  2  : 1  in  front  hoofs,  and  as  4 :  3  :  2  in  hind 


Plantar  surface  of  right  fore-hoof:  a,  a,  bearing- 
surface  of  the  toe  :  a,  b.  bearing-surface  of  the  side 
walls  or  mammse  ;  b,  c,  bearing-surface  of  the 
quarters  ;  d,  buttress,  or  angle  formed  by  wall  and 
bar ;  e,  bar ;  f,  sole :  /',  branches  of  the  sole  ;  g, 
white  line ;  it  passes  between  the  sole  and  bars  and 
ends  at  g' ;  /(,  horny  frog ;  i,  branches  of  the  frog ; 
k,  heels,  bulbs,  or  glomes  of  the  hoof ;  I,  median 
lacuna  of  horny  frog.  Between  the  bars  and  the 
horny  frog  lie  the  lateral  lacunae  of  the  frog. 


HORSESHOEING. 


49 


hoofs.  The  outer  wall  is,  as  a  rule,  somewhat  more  slantmg 
than  the  inner.  Viewing  a  foot  in  profile,  the  toe  and  heel  should 
be  ijaraljel ;  that  is,  the  line  from  the  hair  to  the  ground  at  the 
toe  should  be  parallel  to  the  line  from  the  hair  to  the  ground  at 
the  buttress.  All  de- 
viations of  the  •wall  Fig.  28. 
from  a  straight  line 
(outward  or  inward 
bendings)  are  to  be 
regarded  as  faults 
or  defects. 

The  thickness  of  the 
wall  is  also  variable. 
In  front  hoofs  the 
wall  is  thickest  at 
the  toe,  and  becomes 
gradually  thinner  to- 
wards the  quarters, 
while  ill  hind  hoofs 
there  is  very  little  difference  in  the  thickness  of  the  wall  of  the 
toe,  sides,  and  cjuarters.  T/^e  more  slanting  half  of  the  hoof  is 
ahvai/s  the  tJiicker ;  thus,  for  example,  the  outer  wall  of  abase- 
wide  foot  is  always  longer  and  more  oblique  than  the  inner  wall, 
and  is  also  thicker.  According  to  Mayer,*  the  thickness  of  the 
wall  at  the  toe  varies  from  three-  to  five-eighths  of  an  inch,  and 
at  the  quarters  from  one-  to  two-hfths  of  an  inch.  These  meas- 
urements are  dependent  upon  the  size  and  breeding  of  the  horse. 

The  horn  wall  is  composed  of  three  superposed  layers.  These 
from  without  to  within  are:  (1)  the  periople,  secreted  by  the 
perioplic  band.  It  is  very  thin,  glistening,  and  varnish-like  in 
appearance,  and  covers  the  entire  outer  surface  of  the  wall,  ex- 
cept where  it  has  been  removed  by  the  rasp,  and  prevents  rapid 
evaporation  of  moisture  from  the  horn.     (2)  The  middle  or  pro- 


Vertical  section  through  the  middle  of  a  hoof,  with  homy 
frog  removed,  to  show. the  position  of  tlie  bar:  «,  b,  marks 
the  line  at  which  the  wall  bends  forward  and  inward  to- 
wards the  median  line  of  the  foot  to  become  the  bar.  Bar 
runs  forward  and  passes  imperceptilily  into  the  sole  c;  a,  a'. 
the  light  shading  shows  the  part  of  the  bar  that  was  in  con- 
tact with  the  horny  frog. 


*  Hufschmied,  vol.  iv.  p.  50. 
4 


50 


HORSESHOEING. 


tective  layer  (Fig.  29,  d)  is  the  thickest,  strongest,  and  most 
important  of  the  tliree  layers  ;  it  forms  tlie  principal  mass  of  the 
wall,  and  is  developed  or  secreted  by  the  coronary  band,  which 
fits  into  the  coronary  groove.  There  are  in  the  coronary  groove 
a  great  number  of  small,  funnel-shaped  openings  into  which 
project  the  horn-producing  villi  or  papillte  of  the  coronary  band. 


Inu.  2\). 


The  outer  wall  of  the  hoof  has  been  removed  by  cutting-  vertically  through  the  middle  of 
the  toe,  down  to  the  upper  surtace  of  the  sole,  then  horizontally  backward  into  the  quarter, 
and,  finally,  upward  through  the  quarter :  a,  perioplic  horn-band  ;  b,  coronary  groove ;  it 
turns  inward  and  forward  at  c  to  form  the  upper  border  of  the  bar ;  d,  surface  of  section  of 
the  wall  at  the  toe ;  d',  at  the  quarter ;  e,  surface  of  horizontal  section  of  the  wall  near  its 
lower  border;  /,  keraphyllous  layer  of  the  wall ;  at/'  it  turns  forward  and  inward  to  cover 
the  bar ;  /",  homy  leaves  standing  free  and  passing  insensibly  into  the  white  horn  of  the 
middle  layer  or  true  wall ;  g,  homy  sole  ;  h,  white  line ;  i,  small  horn-spur  in  middle  of  toe  ; 
k,  part  of  horny  frog  which  is  in  intimate  union  with  the  upper  edge  of  the  bar ;  I,  frog-stay 
of  homy  frog ;  it  divides  the  trough-like  depression  of  the  upper  surface  of  the  frog  into  m, 
the  two  upper  channels  of  the  frog. 

(3)  The  inner  layer  or  keraphyllous  layer  (Fig.  29,/)  consists 
of  prominent,  parallel  horn-leaves  lying  side  by  side  over  the 
entire  inner  surface  of  the  middle  layer  of  the  wall,  and  continu- 
ing beyond  the  buttresses  to  the  ends  of  the  bars  (Fig.  29,/'). 
This  layer  of  horn-leaves  (keraphyllous  layer)  has  in  a  general 
way  about  the  same  shape  and  arrangement  as  the  layer  of  fleshy 
leaves  (podophyllous  layer)  Avhich  secretes  it ;  for  the  horn- 
leaves  fit  in  with  the  fleshy  leaves  in  such  a  way  that  every 
fleshy  leaf  is  embraced  by  two  horn-leaves,  and  every  horn-leaf 


HORSESHOEING. 


51 


by  two  fleshy  leaves  (Fig.  30).  The  keraphyllous  layer  and  the 
horn  of  the  inmost  part  of  the  middle  or  protective  layer  are 
always  white,  even  in  pigmented  (colored)  hoofs. 


(C~ 


c  r  ai 

Cross-section  of  keraphyllous  and  podophyllous  laminfe  (homy  and  fleshy  leaves) :  a,  inmost 
part  of  the  solid  wall ;  the  horn-tubes  approach  very  close  to  the  horny  leaves ;  6,  body  of  the 
podophyllous  membrane  ;  c,  homy  portion  of  a  horn-leaf  directly  continuous  with  the  middle 
or  principal  layer  of  the  wall ;  (f,  a  rudimentary  horn-leaf  that  does  not  reach  the  body  of  the 
podophyllous  membrane ;  e",  cross-section  of  horny  leaves  from  the  sides  of  which  branch 
many  secondary  leaves  (leaflets)  composed  of  soft  (young)  horn-cells.  These  soft  cellular 
horn-leaflets  dovetail  with  the  podophyllous  or  fleshy  leaflets ;  d,  podophyllous  laminae  ex- 
tending from  the  body  of  the  podophylloii'i  membrane  ;  d',  podophyllous  laminae  which  have 
branched  in  their  course  to  the  wall,  and  thus  given  rise  to  c',  rudimentary  horn-leaves  ;  d", 
cross-section  of  podophyllous  leaflets  extending  from  the  sides  of  the  podophyllous  leaves ; 
each  two  such  leaflets  secrete  a  keraphyllous  leaflet  between  them ;  e,  injected  arterial  vessels. 


The  horn  sole  (Fig.  27,  /,  and  Fig.  29,  g)  is  secreted  by  the 
velvety  tissue  of  the  sole.  A  sole  from  which  the  loose  flakes 
of  old  horn  have  been  removed  is  about  as  thick  as  the  wall. 
It  covers  the  under  surface  of  the  foot,  and  presents  upon  its 
upper  surface  a  convexity  which  exactly  fits  into  the  concavity 
on  the  under  surface  of  the  os  pedis.  This  upper  surface  is 
thickly  covered  by  a  multitude  of  minute  funnel-shaped  open- 
ings for  the  reception  of  the  villi  of  the  velvety  tissue  of  the  sole 
(Fig.  31).  The  lower  surface  of  the  sole  is  more  or  less  concave, 
rough,  uneven,  and  often  covered  by  loose  scales  of  dead  horn. 
Behind,  the  sole  presents  a  triangular  opening  whose  borders  lie 


52 


HORSESHOEING. 


partly  in  contact  witli  the  liorny  frog  and  partly  with  the  bars. 
This  opening  or  re-entering  angle  divides  the  sole  into  a  body 
(Fig.  27,  /)  and  two  wings  or  branches  (Fig.  27,  f).  The  outer 
border  of  the  sole  unites  through  the  medium  of  the  white  line 


Fig.  31. 


Fig.  32. 


Vertical  section  of  the  horn 5^  sole  magnified  :  a, 
funnel-shaped  openings  which  contain  the  horn- 
producing  villi  of  the  fleshy  sole  ;  they  are  of    which  covers  the  quarters  removed  from  the 
various  sizes ;  6,  horn-tubes ;  c,  intertuhuiar  horn,    hoof  as  one  piece  by  maceration  :  a,  trough- 
shaped  depression  of  upper  surface,  which 
is  divided  posteriorly  into  the  two  upi^er 
with  the  lower   part  of  the  inner    channels  of  the  frog  by  b,  the  frog-stay;  c, 
surface  of  the  wall— that  is,  with    P-t  of  the  frog  that  is  joined  to  the  bar  and 

the  keraphyllous  layer  of  the 
wah.  This  white  line  (Figs.  27, 
g,  and  29,  /?),  of  so  much  impor- 
tance to  the  horseshoer,  ig. formed 
by  the  horn-leaves,^  and  by  those 

short  plugs  of  tubular  horn  which  are  secreted  by  the  villi  that  are 
always  found  at  the  lower  ends  of  the  fleshy  leaves.  The  white 
line  may  be  said  to  exist  wherever  the  horn-leaves  can  be  dis- 
cerned upon  the  plantar  surface  of  the  hoof.  It  not  only  passes 
around  the  circumference  of  the  sole  from  heel  to  heel,  but  may 
be  followed  forward  from  the  buttresses  along  the  bars  almost 
to  the  summit  of  the  frog.  The  horn  of  the  white  line  is  soft, 
unpigmented  (white),  and  possesses  so  very  httle  resistance 
(strength)  that  it  is  often  found    crumbling  or  even   absent  in 


Horny  frog,  with  the  posterior  portion  of 
the  perioplic  horn-band  and  the  periople 


forms  tlie  lateral  wall  of  the  depression 
(channels)  on  upper  surface  of  frog  ;  rf,  lat- 
eral surface  of  horny  frog  wliich,  in  its 
upper  part,  adheres  to  the  bar,  but  below,  at 
d',  lies  free  ;  e,  point  or  summit  of  the  frog ;  /, 
perioplic  horn-band ;/',  periople  of  the  quar- 
ters. 


HORSESHOEING. 


53 


Fig.  3c 


places.    The  visible  part  of  the  white  line  is  usually  of  a  grayish- 
black   color,  owing  to  the  working  in  from  below  of  dirt  and 
liquid  manure,  and  to  staining  by  rust  from  the  nails.    The  white 
Ihie  is  very  important,  since 
it  serves  as  the  point  from 
which  we  judge  of  the  thick- 
ness of  the    wall,  and   be- 
cause   the    horseshoe    nail 
should  penetrate  it. 

The  Frog  (Figs.  27,  h,  29, 
/-,  I,  32,  and  33  ,  secreted  by 
the  velvety  tissue  covering 
the  plantar  cushion  and  pre- 
senting almost  the  same  form 
as  the  latter,  lies  as  a  wedge 

between  the  bars  and  between  the  edges  of  the  sole  just  in  front 
of  the  bars,  with  both  of  which  structures  it  is  intimately  united. 
Its  horn  is  quite  soft  and  very  elastic.     The  median  lacuna  or  cleft 


A  homy  frog  cut  vertically  and  lengthwise 
through  its  middle :  a,  upper  surface ;  b,  frog- 
stay  ;  c,  median  lacuna  of  frog,  which  at  &  is 
overlaid  with  superposed  layers  of  horn. 


Fig.  3-1. 


Longitudm.il  ^e(  tion  of  the  wall  magnified  The  daik  ^tnpe'^  p  if  I'hl  and  olo^e  together  are- 
hom-tuhes  ;  the  lighter  surftice  Ijetween  the  tubes  represents  the  intertubular  horn.  Notice 
that  the  hom-tubes  are  of  various  diameters.  The  space  between  a  and  b  represents  the  small 
tubes  of  the  outer,  darker  horn  of  the  principal  (middle)  layer  of  the  wall ;  the  space  between 
6  and  c  the  lighter,  inner  horn  of  the  wall ;  c,  d,  the  horn  separating  the  wall  proper  from  the 
horny  leaves ;  d,  e,  the  horny  leaves  (keraphyllous  tissue),  on  which  can  be  seen  fine,  parallel, 
vertical  stripes ;  in  the  horn-leaf  at  /,  /  are  seen  fissures  passing  obliquely  upward  and  out- 
ward towards  the  wall. 

of  the  frog  ^Fig.  27,  I)  divides  it  into  two  branches  (Fig.  27,  /), 
wiiich  pass  backward  and  outward  into  the  horny  bulbs  (Fig.  27, 


54 


HORSESHOEING. 


Fig.  35. 


Cross-section  of  the  wall,  mag- 
nified :  a,  horn-tubes ;  b,  intertu 
bular  horn. 


k).    In  front  of  the  median  lacuna  the  two  branches  unite  to  form 

the  body  of  the  frog  (Fig.  27,  A),  which  ends  in  a  point,  designated 

the  pointy  apex,  or  summit  of  the  frog. 
On  the  upper  surface  of  the  frog,  di- 
rectly over  the  median  cleft  of  the 
lower  surface,  there  is  a  small  projec- 
tion called  the  frog-stay  (Figs.  29,  I,  32, 
and  33,  6),  which  fits  into  the  median 
cleft  of  the  plantar  cushion.  Besides, 
the  upper  surface  of  the  frog  shows 
many  minute  openings,  similar  to  but 
smaller  than  those  of  the  sole  and 
coronary  groove,  for  the  reception  of 
villi.  In  unshod  hoofs  the  frog,  sole, 
bars,  and  bearing-edge  of  the  wall  are 

on  a  level ;  that  is,  the  plantar  surface  of  such  hoofs  is  perfectly 

flat. 

The  minute  strticture  of  the  horn  can  scarcely  be  considered  in  detail  in  an 
elementary  treatise  such  as  this  is.  However,  a  few  of  the  most  important 
facts  are  as  follows  : 

If  we  carefully  examine  a  transverse  section  of  the  horn  of  the  wall 
(Fig.  35),  sole,  or  frog,  we  will  see  with  the  naked  eye,  though  much  better 
with  a  magnifying  glass,  many  minute  points  quite  close  to  one  another,  and 
greatly  resembling  the  small  openings  which  we  have  seen  in  the  coronary 
groove  of  the  wall  and  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  horny  sole  and  frog.  If, 
now,  we  examine  a  longitudinal  section  of  the  wall  (Fig.  34)  or  sole,  we  will 
see  a  number  of  fme,  dark  stripes,  which  are  straight,  parallel,  quite  close 
to  one  another,  of  different  widths,  and  which  are  separated  by  bands  of 
lighter  horn  also  of  different  widths.  A  thin  section  or  slice  of  the  wall 
taken  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  these  dark  lines  (Fig.  35)  shows  us 
that  the  minute  points  that  are  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  when  held  up  to  the 
light  or  moderately  magnified,  prove  to  be  small  openings  (Fig.  35,  a).  Since 
these  openings,  shown  in  Fig.  35,  represent  the  dark  lines  shown  in  Fig.  34, 
because  an  opening  is  found  wherever  there  is  a  dark  line,  we  must  regard  all 
dark  lines  seen  in  longitudinal  sections  of  wall,  sole,  and  frog  as  holloip  cylinders 
or  tubes,  though  they  are  not  always  hollow,  but  are  often  filled  with  loosely 
adjusted,  crumbling,  broken-down  horn-cells.  The  dark  edges  of  the  open- 
ings [a]  consist  of  thick  layers  of  horn-cells  (tube-walls).     The  entire  struc- 


HORSESHOEING.  55 

ture  is  called  a  horn-tube,  and  the  lighter-colored  masses  of  horn  (Fig. 
35,  b)  between  the  tubes  are  known  as  intertubular  horn. 


With  the  exception  of  the  horny  leaves  of  the  wall  and 
bars,  all  the  horn  of  the  hoof  is  composed  of  horn-tubes  and 
intertubular  horn. 

The  horn-tubes  of  the  wall,  sole,  and  frog  always  run  down- 
ward and  forward  parallel  to  the  direction  of  the  wall  at  the 
toe, — that  is,  in  a  direction  parallel  with  the  inclination  of  the 
hoof  as  a  whole.  Although  the  wall,  sole,  and  frog  differ  from 
one  another  considerably  with  respect  to  the  size  and  number 
of  the  horn-tubes,  the  quality  of  the  intertubular  horn,  and  the 
thickness  and  strength  of  the  horn-cells,  these  differences  are 
only  of  subordinate  interest  or  importance  to  the  horseshoer ; 
but  he  who  desires  to  learn  more  of  this  matter  is  referred  to 
the  work  of  Leisering  &  Hartmann,  "  Der  Fuss  des  Pferdes  in 
Rlicksicht  auf  Bau,  Verrichtungen  und  Hufbeschlag,"  eighth 
edition,  Dresden,  1893.  This  book  also  treats  of  the  variations 
in  the  quality  of  hoofs,  which  is  very  important  for  the  practical 
horse-shoer  to  know.  It,  furthermore,  considers  the  solidity 
and  strength  of  the  horn  of  the  different  parts  of  the  hoof. 

With  respect  to  solidity,  two  kinds  of  horn  are  distinguished, — 
namely,  hard  and  soft  horn.  The  periople,  the  white  line,  and  the 
frog-  are  soft  horn  structures  ;  the  middle  layer  of  the  \yall  and  the 
s^e  are  hard  or  soUd  horn.  The  wall,  however,  is  somewhat 
harder  and  more  tenacious  than  the  sole,  for  the  latter  passes 
off  in  more  or  less  large  flakes  (exfoliates)  or  crumbles  away  on 
its  lower  surface,  at  least  in  shod  feet,  while  no  such  spontaneous 
shortening  occurs  in  the  wall. 

Soft  horn  differs  from  hard  horn  in  that  its  horn-cells  never 
become  hard  and  horn-like.  It  is  very  elastic,  absorbs  water 
quickly,  and  as  readily  dries  out  and  becomes  very  hard  and 
brittle  and  easily  fissured  and  chapped.  With  respect  to  quality^ 
we  distinguish  good  and  bad  horn  ;  the  former  is  fine  and  tena- 
cious (tough),  the  latter  coarse  and  either  soft  and  crumbling  or 


56 


HORSESHOEING. 


Fig.  36. 


Vertical  section  througli  middle  of  a  forefoot,  ihe  skin  and  pododerm  being  in  red.  (In 
the  figure  tlie  direction  of  both  long  and  short  pasterns,  B  and  D,  is  too  nearly  vertical— too 
steep.)  A,  metacarpal  bone  (cannon) ;  B,  os  suffraginis  (long  pastern) ;  C,  inner  sesamoid 
bone  (to  render  it  visible  a  portion  of  the  Intersesamoid  ligament  was  removed) ;  D,  os  coro- 
nse  (short  pastern) ;  E,  os  pedis  (foot-bone) ;  F.  navicular  bone ;  a,  extensor  tendon  ;  6,  suspen- 
sory ligament  of  the  fetlock  ;  b',  superficial  inferior  sesamoid  ligament ;  c,  perforatus  tendon 
or  flexor  of  the  os  coronse  ;  c',  ring  passing  forward  from  this  tendon  and  encircling  the  per- 
forans  tendon  ;  d,  perforaiis  tendon  ;  e,  capsular  ligament  of  fetlock-joint : /,  capsular  ligament 
of  coronary  joint;  g,  g',  capsular  ligament  of  pedal  joint;  /;,  synovial  sheath  of  the  per- 
forans  tendon  ;  i.  plantar  cushion  and  fle.shy  frog;  i',  bulbs  or  glomes  of  plantar  cushion  ;  i" 
indicates  the  lowest  point  reached  by  the  plantar  oishion,  which  in  the  figure  is  hidden  telow 
by  the  Irog-stay  of  the  horny  frog ;  k,  coronary  band  (red) ;  I,  podophyllous  tissue  (red) ;  m, 
velvety  tissue  of  the  sole  (red) ;  n,  velvety  tissue  of  fleshy  frog  (red) ;  o,  wall ;  p,  sole  ;  q,  frog ; 
q',  the  inner  half  of  the  frog-stay  which  reposes  in  the  median  lacuna  of  the  fleshy  frog ;  r, 
spur  of  horn  in  middle  of  the  toe  ;  s,  hair-skin  (red). 


HORSESHOEING.  57 

hard  and  brittle.     If  not  dried  out,  all  horn  is  elastic,  though  soft 

horn  is  more  elastic  than  hard.     All  horn  is  a  poor  conductor  of 

heat. 

Fig.  37. 


Right  forefoot  viewed  from  the  side  :  A,  lower  en4  of  the  cannon  ;  B,  fetlocli-joint ;  C, 
long  pastern  ;  D,  coronet ;  E,  hoof;  F,  heel ;  F',  inner  heel ;  G,  foot-lock  covering  the  ergot. 


The  relative  positions  of  the  various  parts  of  the  foot  are 
shown  in  Fig.  36. 

Fig.  37  represents  the  exterior  of  a  well-formed  foot. 


CHAPTER   II. 


Fig.  38. 


THE   FOOT   IN   ITS    RELATION   TO   THE   ENTIRE   LIMB. 

As  there  are  well-formed  and  badly  formed  bodies,  so  there 
are  well-formed  and  badly  formed  limbs  and  hoofs.  The  form 
of  the  hoof  depends  upon  the  position  of  the  Hmb.     A  straight 

limb  of  normal  direction  possesses,  as 
a  rule,  a  regular  hoof,  while  an  oblique 
or  crooked  limb  is  accompanied  by  an 
irregular  or  oblique  hoof.  Hence,  it  is 
necessary,  before  discussing  the  various 
forms  of  the  hoof,  to  consider  briefly 
the  various  positions  that  may  be  as- 
sumed by  the  limbs.  In  this  discussion 
we  shall  deal  with  the  living  horse. 

A.  Standing  Positions  of  the  Limbs. 

The  position  of  a  limb  depends  upon 
the  varying   lengths  of  its  component 
bones   and   the   angles  at  which   they 
meet  one  another.    To  judge  the  stand- 
ing position  of  a  fore-limb  one   must 
stand  in  front  of  the  horse  ;  to  judge  a 
hind  limb,  stand  behind  the  horse ;  the 
backw^ard  or  forward  deviations  of  both 
front  and   hind   limbs   are  judged   by 
standing  at  the  side.     But  a  horse  does 
not  always  move  as  his  standing  posi- 
tion would  lead  one  to  suspect ;  stand- 
ing and  moving  are  different.     Therefore,  in  order  to  arrive  at  a 
proper  judgment,  one  must  observe  the  limbs  both  at  rest  and  in 
motion. 

58 


Normal    (retrular)    position    of 
lore-limbs. 


HORSESHOEING. 


59 


(a)  The  position  of  a  limb  viewed  from  in  front  is  normal  or 
straight  (Fig.  38)  when  it  stands  vertical  or  perpendicular.  A 
plumb-line  dropped  from  the  point  of  the  shoulder  (middle  of 
the  scapulo-humeral  articulation)  should  pass  down  the  middle 
line  of  the  limb,  dividing  it  into  inner  and  outer  halves  of  equal 
width,  and  meeting  the  ground  at  the  middle  of  the  toe. 

In  the  base-unde  standimi  positimi  (Fig.  39)  the  plumb-line  falls 
to  the  inner  side  of  the  limb  ;  the  limb  extends  obliquely  down- 
ward and  outward.     To__this_  class  belong  also  the  knee-narrqw 


Fig.  39. 


Fig.  40. 


Fig.  41. 


Base-wide  position  of 
fore-limbs. 


Toe-wide  position  of 
fore-limbs. 


Toe-narrow  position  of 
fore-limbs. 


(knock-kneed)  position,  in  which  the  front  knees  are  too  close 
together,  while  the  feet  stand  wide  apart,  and  the  toe-icide  position 
(splay-footed.  Fig.  40)  in  which  the  toes  point  obliquely  forward 
and  outward.  In  base-wide  positions  either  the  entire  limb  ex- 
tends downward  and  outward  or  the  foot  alone  is  turned  outward. 
The  base  narroir  poKifion  is  frequently  observed  in  horses  with 
very  wide  breasts.  The  limbs  run  downward  and  inward,  a 
plumb-line  dropped  from  the  point  of  the  shoulder  falling  to  the 
outer  side  of  the  leg  and  foot.  A  special  form  of  the  base  narrow 
position  is  the  toe-narrow  or  pigeon-toed  position  (Fig.  41).     In 


GO 


HORSESHOEING. 


some  instances  the  legs  are  straight  and  perpendicular  down  to 
the  fetlock,  while  from  there  to  the  ground  the  phalanges  incline 
obliquely  inward.  Another  forin  is  the  knee-wide  or  bandy-legged 
position^  in  which  the  knees  are  placed  too  far  apart,  while  the 
cannons  and  phalanges  incline  downward  and  inward. 

The  position  of  a  fore-limb  vie^wed  in  profile  is  regular  or 
normal  (Fig.  42)  when  a  perpendicular  line  dropped  from  the 

Fig.  42. 


Normal  regular)  position  of  limbs  viewed  from  the  side. 

middle  of  the  shoulder-blade  (tuberosity  of  the  acromion  spine) 
divides  the  leg  from  the  elbow  to  the  fetlock  into  anterior  and 
posterior  halves  of  ecjual  width,  and  touches  the  ground  imme- 
diately back  of  the  bulbs  of  the  heel.  The  foot-axis  (line  of 
direction  of  the  three  phalanges)  and  the  wall  at  the  toe  form  an 
angle  of  from  forty  five  to  fifty  degrees  with  tlie  liorizontal 
ground-surface. 


HORSESHOEING. 


61 


From  this  normal  or  regular  standing  position,  there  are  devi- 
ations JoricanJ  as  well  as  backward. 

Forward  Deviations. — "  Standing  in  fronf  or  "  camped  in 
fronV'  (Fig.  43)  is  that  position  in  which  the  entire  leg  from  the 
body  to  the  ground  is  placed  too  far  forward.  Sheep-hieed  (Fig. 
44)  is  that  position  in  which  the  forward  deviation  is  from  the 
knee  downward,  the  knee  being  placed  too  far  under  the  body. 
''Weak-jointed.''  ''low-jointed,''  or  '' acute^angled"  (Fig.  45)  is  that 


Fig.  44. 


Fig.  43 


Fig.  45. 


Camped  in  front. 


Sheep-kneed  position. 


Acute-angled  foot. 


position  in  which  the  limbs  are  perpendicular  and  straight  down 
as  far  as  the  fetlock-joint,  but  the  feet  are  placed  too  far  in  front. 
Backward  Deviations. — Standing  under  in_J'ro)it  (Fig.  46)  is 
that  deviation  in  which  the  entire  leg  from  the  elbow  dov/n  is 
placed  back  of  the  perpendicular  line  and,  therefore,  too  far 
under  the  body.  When  this  deviation  affects  only  the  cannon 
bone,  the  horse  stands  bent  forward  at  the  knees, — a  condition 
known  as  "" goatdmeed''  ''"buck-kneed,"  '' over  in  the  knees''  or, 
more  commonly,  "  knee-sprung"  (Fig.  47).  When  the  backward 
deviation  is  only  from  the  fetlock  down,  the  aninial  is  said  to 


62 


HORSESHOEING. 


ill  tlie  Jcflorky     Fig,  46  shows  this 
li  Llio  leu-  above  is  too  far  back  of  the 


Fig.  46. 


Fig.  47. 


stand  wpright  or  "  strahjlif 
position  of  the  fetlock,  thuii 
perpendicular  line. 

(7^)  A  hind  leg  vie-wed  from  behind  is  said  to  be  regular  or 
straight  (Fig.  48)  when  a  perpendicular  line  dropped  from  the 
tuberosity  of  the  ischium  (see  Fig.  1,  9")  divides  the  entire  limb 
into  inner  and  outer  halves  of  equal  width  and    touches  the 

ground  opposite  the 
median  lacuna  of  the 
frog.  Seen  from  the 
side,  this  line  just 
touches  the  point  of 
the  hock  and,  passing 
down  at  some  dis- 
tance from  the  flexor 
tendons,  meets  the 
ground  considerably 
back  of  the  heels.  A 
perpendicular  line 
dropped  from  the 
hip-joint  should  pass 
through  the  foot, 
meeting  the  ground 
half-way  between  the 
point  of  the  toe  and 
the  heel  (Fig.  42).  There  are  base-wide,  base-narrow,  toe- 
v^ride,  and  toe-narrow  deviations  in  the  hind  limbs  as  in  the 
fpre-hmbs. 

The  hind  limbs  are  base-wide  when  they,  either  as  a  whole  or 
in  part,  deviate  outward  from  the  normal.  The  "  ep?r-Aoe/r<-r^ 
position  (Fig.  49)  is  an  example  of  the  base -wide  ;  in  this  case 
the  points  of  the  hocks  are  too  close  and  turn  towards  each  other, 
while  the  feet  are  widely  separated  and  the  toes  turned  outward. 
BgimrJMiLnBU  (Fig.  50)  is  that  position  of  the  hind  legs  in  which 
the  hocks  are  too  far  apart  (bandy-legged). 


standing  under  in  front. 


Knee-sprung  (goat-kneed) 
position. 


HORSESHOEING. 


63 


Viewing-  a  hind  limb  from  the  side,  it  may  be  observed  to  de- 
viate either  forward  or  backward  from  the  normal.  Among  for- 
ward deviations  is  the  so  called  "  sabre-leg''''  or  "  slcMf-hQck''  (Fig. 
51),  in  which  the  hock-joint  is  too  much  flexed,  the  foot  placed 
too  far  forward  under  the  body,  and  the  fetlock  too  slanting.  In 
the  position  known  as  "  camped  behind'''' 
(Fig.  52)  the  leg  is  behind  the  body  and  the 
pastern  is  too  upright,  too  nearly  vertical. 

Fig.  50. 


Fig.  48. 


Normal  (regular)  position  of 
hind  limbs  viewed  from  be- 
hind. 


Base-wide  position  of  hind 
limbs  (cow-hocked). 


Base-narrow  position  of  hind 
limbs  (bandy-legged). 


It  is  possible  for  each  limb  of  the  same  horse  to  assume  a 
different  chrection.  It  more  often  happens  that  if  the  fore-limbs 
are  base-wide  the  hind  limbs  are  base-narrow,  or  vice  versa. 
While  there  are  some  other  deviations  that  differ  somewhat  from 
those  already  described,  they  are  of  less  importance  to  the  horse- 
shoer. 


64 


HORSESHOEING. 


B.  Forms  of  Feet,  viewed  from  in  Front,  from  Behind, 

and  in  Profile. 

In  all  the  various  positions  of  the  limbs  we  find  the  feet  in 
one  of  the  follo\Ying  three  forms,  or  very  like  one  of  them.  By 
means  of  a  proper  knowledge  of  these  three  forms,  the  judging 

Fig.  51.  Fig.  52. 


Sabre-legged  or  sickle-huekecl  position. 


Camped  behind. 


of  the  form,  flight  of  the  foot  in  travelling,  and  preparation  of 
the  hoof  for  the  shoe,  as  well  as  the  choice  of  the  length  of  the 
shoe,  are  regulated,  facilitated,  and  simplitied. 


Fig.  53. 


Fig.  54. 


A  pair  ot  IclI  ot  regular  po&ition  seen  from  in  front  and  Irom  behind. 


HORSESHOEING. 


65 


Whether  a  horse's  feet  be  observed  from  in  front  or  from  be- 
hind, their  form  corresponds  to,  or  at  least  resembles,  either  that 
of  the  regular  position  (Figs.  53  and  54),  the  base-wide  or  toe- 


FiG.  55= 


Fig.  56. 


A  pair  of  feet  of  the  base-\vide  (toe-^vide)  position. 

wide  position  (Figs.  55  and  56),  or  the  base-narrow  or  toe-nar- 
row position  (Figs.  57  and  58). 

By  the  direction  of  the  foot-axis — that  is,  an  imaginary  line 
passing  through  the  long  axis  of  the  three  phalangeal  bones  (Figs. 


Fig.  57. 


Fig.  58. 


A  pair  of  feet  of  the  ba?e-narTow  (toe-narrow)  position. 


53,  57,  59.  60.  and  61) — we  determine  whether  or  not  the  hoof 
and  pastern  stand  in  proper  mutual  relation. 

In  the  regular  standing  position  (Figs.  53  and  54)  the  foot-axis 
runs  straight  downward  and  forward,  in  the  base-wide  position 


66 


HORSESHOEING. 


(Figs.  55  and  56)  it  runs  obliquely  downward  and  outward,  and 
in  the  base-narrow  position  (Figs.  57  and  58)  it  runs  obliquely 
downward  and  inward. 

Viewing  the  foot  from  the  side,  we  distinguish  the  regular  (nor- 
mal) position  (Fig.  60),  and  designate  all  forward  deviations  as 


Fig.  59. 


Fig.  60. 


Fig.  61. 


Ttie  so-called  acute-angled 
hoof. 


Normal-angled  hoof. 


So-called  stumpy  or  obtuse- 
angled  hoof. 


Fig.  62. 


acute-ang-led  (long  toe  and  low  heel,  Fig.  59),  and  all  deviations 
backward  from  the  regular  position  as  obtuse-angled  *  (short 
toe  and  high  heel,  Fig.  61),  steep-toed,  or  stumpy. 

When  the  body-weight  is  uniformly  dis- 
tributed over  all  four  limbs,  the  foot-axis 
should  be  straight  (Figs.  59  and  61,  dotted 
line),  not  "  broken"  (bent) ;  the  long  pas- 
tern, "wall  at  the  toe,  and  foot-axis  should 
have  the  same  slant. 

A  peculiar  form  of  foot  is  the  so-called 
keaz-fQQ.t  (Fig.  62),  in  which  the  foot-ax]s, 
viewed  from  the  side,  is  broken  strongly 
fqrward  at  the  coronet.  The  w^all  at  the 
toe  stands  much  steeper  than  the  long 
pastern ;  in  other  words,  a  low-jointed, 
sloping  pastern  is  attached  to  an  upright  (obtuse-angled)  hoof. 
Such  a  foot  is  sometimes  improperly  called  a  "  club-foot." 


The  "bear-foot." 


*  The  expression  "  obtuse-angled"  is  here  used  only  in  a  comparative  sense. 


HORSESHOEING. 


67 


0.  Lines  of  Flight  of  Hoofs  in  Motion. 

If  we  observe  horses  moving  unrestrained  over  level  ground, 
we  will  notice  differences  in  the  carriage  of  the  feet.  In  the 
regular  standing  position  of  the  limbs  the  hoofs  are  carried  for- 

FiG.  64.  Fig.  65. 


Fig.  63. 


® 


© 


0 


Q 


Q 


Q> 


Q 


Q 


Q 


"0 


'¥ 


^ 


(^ 


ward  in  a  straight  direction^ — that  is,  in  a  line  parallel  with  the 
median  line  of  the  body  (Fig.  63).  The  toes  Hkewise  point 
straight  forward  ;  the  hoofs  alight  properly  (flat)  on  the  ground. 
If  the  horse  stands  base-wide,  the  hoof  is  carried  in  a  circle  ;  from 


68  HORSESHOEING. 

its  position,  which  is  behind  and  well  out  from  the  median  line, 
the  hoof  passes  first  forward  and  inward  until  it  is  close  to  the 
supporting  leg,  and  then  outward  to  the  ground  (Fig.  64),  where 
the  shock  is  received  principally  upon  the  outer  toe.  The  toes 
point  either  directly  forward,  as  in  the  regular  standing  position, 
or  forward  and  outward  as  in  the  toe-wide  position. 

Exactly  the  reverse  is  true  of  the  horse  that  stands  base-narrow; 
in  this  case  the  hoof  is  moved  in  a  circle  whose  convexity  is 
outward, — that  is,  the  hoof  from  its  position  behind,  and  close  to 
the  median  line,  is  carried  forward  and  outward  and  then  inward 
to  the  ground  (Fig.  65).  The  direction  in  which  the  hoofs  move 
is  diagrammatically  illustrated  in  Figs.  63,  64,  and  65.  Many 
deviations  in  the  line  of  flight  of  hoofs  and  in  the  manner  in 
which  they  are  set  to  the  ground  occur ;  for  example,  horses 
heavily  burdened  or  pulling  heavy  loads,  and,  therefore,  not 
having  free  use  of  their  limbs,  project  their  limbs  irregularly  and 
meet  the  ground  first  with  the  toe ;  however,  careful  observation 
will  detect  the  presence  of  one  or  the  other  of  these  lines  of  flight 
of  the  foot.  Irregular  carriage  of  the  feet  renders  a  horse 
unsuitable  for  general  purposes  only  when  it  is  very  pronounced, 
in  which  case  certain  troublesome  conditions,  such  as  interfering 
and  disease  of  joints,  are  of  frequent  occurrence. 

D.  Forms  of  Hoofs. 

A  front  hoof  of  the  regular  standing  position  (Fig.  66).  The 
inner  and  outer  walls  differ  but  little  in  direction  and  thickness. 
The  outer  wall  is  a  little  thicker  and  somewhat  more  slanting 
than  the  inner  (see  Figs.  53  and  54),  and  its  outer  circumference 
describes  a  larger  arc  of  a  circle, — that  is,  is  more  curved,  as  can 
be  seen  both  at  its  plantar  border  and  at  the  coronet.  The 
length  of  the  quarter  in  relation  to  the  length  or  height  of  the 
side  wall  and  toe  is  about  as  1:2:3.  The  toe  forms  an  angle 
with  the  ground  of  forty-five  to  fifty  degrees  (see  Fig.  60).  The 
direction  of  the  wall  at  the  toe,  viewed  from  the  side,  should  be 
parallel  with  the  direction  of  the  long  pastern. 


HORSESHOEING. 


69 


A  hoof  of  the  base-icidc  j^osition  (Fig.  67)  is  always  awry,  because 
the  outer  wall  is  naturally  somewliat  longer  and  decidedly  more 
slanting  than  the  inner  (see 
Figs.  55  and  56).  The  plan- 
tar border  of  the  outer  wall 
describes  a  large  arc,  whose 
sharpest  curvature  is  where 
the  side  wall  passes  into  the 
c|uarter.  The  plantar  body 
of  the  inner  wall  is  straighter 
(less  curved) ;  the  outer  half 
of  the  ground  surface  (sole) 
of  the  hoof  is,  therefore, 
wider  than  the  inner.  So 
long  as  the  hoof  is  healthy, 
both  branches  of  the  frog 
are  equally  developed.  The 
wryness  of  the  hoof  depends 
upon  the  direction  of  the 
hmb ;  therefore,  a  base-wade 
hoof  should  be  regarded  as 

a  nprmallv  wry  hoof,  to  distinguish  it  from  hoofs  which  are  wry 
from  disease. 

AJioof  of  the  toe  wide  position  (Fig.  68)  is  distinguished  from 
the  preceding  by  the  bending  or  curvature  of  the  plantar  border 
oTTKe  outer  toe  and  inner  c{uarter  being  often  decidedly  less 
pronounced  than  on  the  inner  toe  and  outer  quarter ;  therefore, 
two  short  curves  and  two  long  curves  lie  opposite  eacli  other ;  in 
other  words,  the  inner  toe  and  outer  quarter,  lying  opposite  each 
other,  are  sharply  curved,  while  the  outer  toe  and  inner  charter, 
lying  opposite  eacli  other,  are  much  less  sharply  bent  or  curved. 
The  toes  are  turned  out.  The  feet  are  not  set  down  flat  upon 
the  ground,  but  meet  it  with  the  outer  toe. 

A  hoof  of  the  base- narrow  position  is  normally  wry,  but  never  so 
pronounced  as  a  hoof  of  the  base-wide  position.     The  inner 


Right  fore-hoof  of  the  regular  position. 


70 


HORSESHOEING. 


Fig.  67. 


Fig.  68. 


Right  fore-hoof  of  the  base-wide  position. 


Right  fore-hoof  of  the  toe-wide  position. 


wall  is  but  little  more  oblique  than  the  outer,  the  difference 
being  most  noticeable  at  the  quarters  (Figs.  57  and  58).     The 

curve  of  the  plantar  border 
of  the  wall  is  similar  to  that 
of  a  regular  hoof,  except 
that  the  inner  side  wall  and 
quarter  are  a  httle  more 
sharply  curved  in  a  base- 
narrow  hoof.  Occasionally 
the  outer  quarter  is  some- 
wliat  drawn  in  under  the 
foot. 

This  form  of  hoof  is  most 
distinctly  marked  in  animals 
that  stand  toe  narrow  or  are 
bandy-legged. 

As  to  the  forms  of  the  hind 
hoofs,  what  has  been  said 
concerning  the  influence  of 
position  of  the  limbs  upon  the  shape  of  the  front  feet  will  apply 
equally  well  to  them.     The  hind  hoof  (Fig.  69)  is  not  round  at 


Right  hind  hoof  of  the  regular  position. 


HORSESHOEING.  71 

the  toe,  but  somewhat  pointed  or  oval.  Its  greatest  width  is 
between  the  middle  and  posterior  thirds  of  the  sole.  It  usually 
has  a  strongly  concaved  sole  and  a  somewhat  steeper  toe  than 
the  fore  hoof;  viewed  from  the  side,  the  angle  of  the  toe  with  the 
ground  in  the  regular  standing  position  is  from  fifty  to  fifty-five 
degrees. 

Finally,  we  also  distinguish  wide  and  narrow  hoofs ;  they  are 
not  dependent  upon  the  position  of  the  limbs,  but  upon  the  race 
and  breeding  of  the  animal. 

^  The  wide  hoof  (Fig.  70j  is  almost  round  upon  its  plantar  sur- 
face. Its  wall  runs  cjuite  oblique  to  the  ground.  The  sole  is  but 
moderately  concave,  and  the  frog  is  strong  and  well  developed. 


Fig.  70. 


Fig.  71. 


Wide  luiv-hoof. 


Narrow  lure-hoof. 


The  narrow  hoof  (Fig.  71)  is  rather  elliptical,  with  steep  side  walls, 
strongly  concaved  sole,  and  small,  undeveloped  frog.  The  horn 
of  the  narrow  hoof  is  fine  and  tough ;  of  the  wide  hoof,  usually 
The  wide  hoof  may  readily  become  flat.    Narrow  hoofs 


coarse. 


are  either  the  result  of  breeHinjy  pr  prpmntnrp  shnpinfj-. 

In  enumerating  the  preceding  forms  of  the  hoof  we  have  by 
no  means  referred  to  all  the  forms  in  which  the  hoof  may  be 


72  HORSESHOEING. 

found ;  on  the  contrary,  hoofs  vary  in  shape  and  quality  to  such 
an  extent  tliat  among  a  hundred  horses  no  two  hoofs  can  be 
found  which  are  exactly  alike.  In  fact,  the  same  variety  exists 
as  in  the  faces  of  people,  and  we  know  that  we  can  recall  in 
succession  even  many  more  faces  without  finding  two  that  are 
exactly  alike.  This  explains  the  manifold  differences  in  horse- 
shoes with  respect  to  size,  form,  and  other  qualities. 

Suppose  now  a  hoof  is  before  us ;  it  is  first  necessary  to  know 
whether  or  not  it  is  healthy.  Unfortunately,  a  perfectly  healthy 
hoof  is  not  so  easy  to  find  as  one  may  think.  We  recognize  a 
sound  hoof  by  the  following  marks :  Seen  from  in  front  or  from 
the  side,  the  course  of  the  wall  from  the  coronet  to  the  ground, 
in  the  direction  of  the  horn-tubes,  is  straight, — that  is,  bent 
neither  in  nor  out.  A  straight  edge,  placed  upon  the  wall  in  the 
direction  of  the  horn-tubes,  touches  at  every  point.  The  wall 
must  show  neither  longitudinal  nor  transverse  cracks  or  fissures. 
If  there  be  rings,  their  position  and  course  are  important.  Rings 
which  pass  around  the  entire  circumference  of  the  wall  parallel 
to  the  coronet  indicate  nothing  more  than  disturbances  of  nutri- 
tion of  the  hoof;  but  the  hoof  cannot  pass  for  sound  when  the 
rings  have  any  other  position  and  direction  than  the  one  men- 
tioned, or  if  the  rings  upon  any  part  of  the  wall  are  more  marked 
than  elsewhere,  even  though  they  may  be  parallel  to  the  coro- 
nary band.  Marked  ring-building  upon  the  hoofs  of  horses 
which  have  regular  feeding,  grooming,  and  work  indicates  a  weak 
hoof.  Viewed  from  the  ground- surface  and  from  beliind,  the 
bulbs  of  the  heels  should  be  well  rounded,  strongly  developed, 
and  not  displaced.  The  concave  sole  should  show  no  separation 
along  the  white  line.  The  frog  should  be  strong^_"well  developed, 
and  have  symmetrical  branches  and  a  broad,  shallow,  dry  me- 
djaii  lacuna.  The  lateral  lacunae  of  the  frog  should  be  clean 
and  not  too  narrow.  The  bars  should  pass  in  a  straight  direc- 
tioiQ  (uTw.ird  and  inward  towards  the  point  of  the  frog.  Any 
bending  uLitward  of  the  bars  towards  the  branches  of  the  sole 
indicates  the  beginning  of  a  narrowing  of  the  space  occupied  by 


HORSESHOEING.  73 

the  frog, — that  is,  contraction  of  the  heels.  The  horn  of  the 
branches  of  the  sole  in  the  buttresses  and  in  their  proximity 
should  show  no  red  staining-.  The  laleral  cartilages  should  be 
elastic.  No  part  of  the  foot  should  be  weakened  at  the  cost  of 
other  parts.  By  firm  union  of  all  strong  parts  the  strength 
and  vigor  of  the  hoof  is  in  no  sense  disturbed.  If  one  desires 
to  ascertain  the  exact  form  and  state  of  health  of  the  hoof  it  must 
never  be  inspected  and  judged  cdone,  but  in  connection  with  the 
entire  limb. 

E.  Growth  of  the  Hoof  and  Wear  of  the  Hoof  and  Shoe. 

All  parts  of  the  horn  of  the  hoof  grow  downward  and  for- 
ward, the  material  for  this  growth  being  furnished  by  the  re- 
markably large  cjuantity  of  blood  which  flows  to  the  pododerm. 
The  growth  of  the  hoof  is  regulated  by  the  nerves. 

As  a  rule,  tjieJxaof  grow;g_uniformly. — that  is,  one  section  of 
the  wall  grows  just  as  rapidly  as  another.  A  visible  indication 
of  growth  is  the  increase  in  height  and  width  of  the  hoof  from 
colthood  to  maturity. 

The  rapiditii  of  <^^i^'^iljiJjl^^^Sjj^^^^  varies,  amounting  in  a 
month  to  from  one- sixth  to  one-half  of  an  inch.     The  average 


monthly  growth  in  both  shod  and  unshod  horses  of  both  sexes 
is,  according  to  my  own  experiments,  one  third  of  an  inch. 
Hind_hoofs  grow  faster  than  front  hoofs,  and  unshod  faster  than 
shod.  Tlie_ hoofs  of  stallions  grqvv  more  slowly  than  those  of 
mares  and  geldings. 

Abundant  exercise,  proper  grooming  (flexibility  and  moist- 
ness  of  the  horn),  regular  dressing  of  the  wall,  and  running- 
barefoot  from  time  to  time  favor  growth;  while  little  or  no 
exercise,  dryness,  and  excessive  length  of  the  hoof  hinder  growth. 

The  time  rec|uired  for  the  horn  to  grow"  from  the  coronet  to 
the  ground  is,  therefore,  equally  variable,  and  is,  moreover,  de- 
pendent upon  the  height  (length  of  toe)  of  the  hoof.  At  the  toe 
the  horn  grows  down  in  from  eleven  to  thirteen  months,  at  the 
mammae  or  sides  in  from  six  to  eight  months,  and  at  the  quarters 


74 


HORSESHOEING. 


Fig.  72. 


in  from  .three  to  five  months.  The  time  required  for  the  re- 
newal of  the  entire  hoof  we  term  the  period  of  hoof  renewal.  If, 
for  example,  we  know  exactly  the  rapidity  of  horn  growth  in  a 
given  case,  we  can  estimate  without  difficulty  the  length  of  the 
"  period  of  hoof  renewal,"  as  well  for  the  entire  hoof  as  for 
each  individual  section  of  the  wall.  The  duration  of  many 
diseases  of  the  hoof  (cracks,  clefts,  partial  bendings  of  the  wall, 
contractions,  etc.)  can  be  foretold  with  relative  certainty  only  by 
knowing  the  period  of  hoof  renewal. 

Irregular  growth  sometimes  takes  place.     The  chief  cause  of 
this  is  usually  an  improper  distribution  of  the  body-weight  over 

the  hoof, — that  is,  an  unbalanced 
foot.  Wry  hoofs  of  faulty  positions 
of  the  limbs  are  often  exposed  to 
this  evil ;  a  faulty  preparation  of  the 
hoof  (dressing)  for  the  shoe,  as  well 
as  neglect  of  the  colt's  hoofs,  is  in 
the  majority  of  cases  directly  re- 
sponsible for  this  condition. 

If  in  the  shortening  of  the  wall  a 
part  is  from  ignorance  left  too  long, 
or  one-half  of  the  hoof  shortened 
too  much  in  relation  to  the  other 
half,  the  foot  will  be  unbalanced. 
The  horse  will  then  touch  the  ground 
first  with  the  section  of  wall  which 
has  been  left  too  high,  and  will  continue  to  do  so  until  this  long 
section  has  been  reduced  to  its  proper  level  (length)  by  the 
increased  wear  which  will  take  place  at  this  point.  In  unshod 
hoofs  this  levelling  process  takes  place  rapidly ;  such,  however, 
is  not  the  case  in  shod  hoofs,  for  here  the  shoe  prevents  rapid 
wear,  and,  indeed  this  levelling  process  is  often  rendered  impos- 
sible through  the  welding  of  high  steel  calks  to  the  shoe.  If 
this  fault  in  trimming  be  repeated  at  the  next  and  subsequent 
shoeings,  and  if  the  faulty  relation  of  the  ground  surface  of  the 


Crooked  (right)  fore-hoof. 


HORSESHOEING.  75 

hoof  to  the  direction  of  the  fetlock  axis  remain  during  several 
months,  the  portion  of  wall  left  too  high  will  grow  more  rapidly, 
the  walls  will  lose  their  natural  straight  direction  and  become 
bent.  If,  for  example,  the  outer  wall  has  been  left  too  long 
during  a  considerable  period  of  time,  a  crooked  hoof  results 
(Fig.  72)  in  which  the  rings  are  placed  closer  together  upon  the 
low  (concave)  side  than  upon  the  high  (convex)  side.  If  for  a 
long  time  the  toe  is  excessively  long,  it  will  become  bent ;  or  if 
this  fault  affects  excessively  high  quarters,  they  will  contract 
either  just  under  the  coronary  band  or  will  curl  forward  and 
inward  at  their  lower  borders.  These  examples  are  sufficient 
to  show  both  the  importance  of  the  manner  in  which  a  horse 
places  his  foot  to  the  ground  and  its  influence  upon  the  loading, 
growth,  and  form  of  the  hoof. 

Wear  of  the  Shoe  and  of  the  Hoof  upon  the  Shoe. 

The  wear  of  the  shoe  is  caused  much  less  by  the  weight  of 
the  animal's  body  than  by  the  rubbing  which  takes  place  be- 
tween the  shoe  and  the  earth  whenever  the  foot  is  placed  to  the 
ground  and  lifted. 

The  wear  of  the  shoe  which  occurs  when  the  foot  is  placed 
on  the  ground  is  termed  "  grounding  wear,"  and  that  which 
occurs  while  the  foot  is  being  lifted  from  the  ground  is  termed 
"  swinging-off  wear."  When  a  horse  travels  normally,  both 
kinds  of  wear  are  nearly  alike,  but  are  very  distinct  when  the 
paces  are  abnormal,  especially  when  there  is  faulty  direction  of 
the  hmbs.  While  in  the  majority  of  horses  whose  limbs  have 
been  stiffened  by  age  and  overwork  both  kinds  of  wear  are  most 
marked  at  the  toe  of  the  shoe,  we  see  relatively  fewer  cases  of 
"grounding  wear"  at  the  ends  of  the  branches  fas  in  laminitis) ; 
on  the  contrary,  we  always  notice  "'swinging-off  wear"  at  the 
toe  of  the  shoe.  It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  length  of  stride 
has  much  to  do  with  the  wear.  We  observe  that  with  shorten- 
ing of  the  stride  both  kinds  of  wear  occur  at  the  toe  of  the 
shoe,  and  this  is  rapidly  worn  away,  as  is  the  case  with  horses 


7G  HORSESHOEING. 

which  are  fretful  and  prance  under  the  rider,  draw  heavy  loads, 
or  from  any  other  cause,  as  disease  or  infirmity,  are  obUged  to 
shorten  their  steps.  With  increase  of  length  of  stride  the  wear 
of  the  shoe  becomes  more  uniform. 

Also  ihe  position  said  form  of  the  shoe  have  a  marked  influence 
upon  its  wear  ;  at  the  place  -where  the  shoe  is  too  far  under 
the  hoof,  either  as  a  result  of  shifting  or  of  having  been  nailed 
on  crooked,  or  where  the  outer  branch  has  not  the  necessary 
width,  or  does  not  form  a  sufficiently  large  curve,  the  wear  will 
be  increased. 

The  wear  of  the  hoof  upon  the  shoe  occurs  as  a  result  of  the 
movements  of  the  quarters.  Visible  indications  of  this  are  the 
brightly  poUshed,  often  sunken  places  upon  the  bearing-surface 
of  the  ends  of  the  branches,  showing  that  scouring  occurs  be- 
tween the  horn  and  the  iron.  Shoes  which  show  brightly  pol- 
ished places  in  their  anterior  halves  have  been  loose.  The  wear 
of  the  quarters  upon  the  shoe  is  not  always  uniform,  but  is 
usually  greater  on  the  inner  than  on  the  outer  quarter,  especially 
in  base-wide  feet.  The  degree  of  this  wear  of  the  hoof  may  be 
from  nothing  to  one-fifth  of  an  inch  or  more  from  one  shoeing  to 
the  next.  Finally,  we  should  remember  that  this  usually  invisi- 
ble scouring  away  of  the  hoof  gradually  causes  the  nails  at  the 
quarters  to  become  loose,  and  that  this  is  more  clearly  marked 
in  the  front  than  in  the  hind  hoofs. 

F.  Physiological  Movements  or  the  Hoof.    (Mechanism 

of  the  Hoof.) 

These  movements  comprise  all  those  changes  of  position  within 
and  of  the  hoof  which  are  brought  about  by  alternately  weighting 
and  relieving  the  foot,  and  which  are  manifest  as  changes  of 
form  of  the  hoof.  The  following  changes  in  form  of  the  hoof  are 
most  marked  at  the  time  that  the  hoof  bears  greatest  weight. — 
that  is,  simultaneous  with  the  greatest  descent  of  the  fetlock-joint. 

1.  A  lateral  expansion  over  the  entire  region  of  the  quarters, 
occurring  simultaneously  at  the  coronary  and  plantar  borders. 


HORSESHOELXG. 


/ 1 


This  expansion    is  small,  and  in   general  varies  between  qne- 
fii'tieth  and  one-t33:£'I£tli-Qf..an  jjicji. 

2.  A  nari'owing  of  the  anterior  half  of  the  hoof  measured  at 
the  coronary  border. 

3.  A  decrease  in  height  of  the  hoof,  with  a  slight_sinking  of  the 
h_^ls. 

4.  A  flattening ,  sinking)  of  the  sole,  especially  in  its  branches. 
These  changes  of  form  are  much  more  pronounced  in  the  half 

of  the  hoof  that  bears  the  greater  weight. 

A  hoof  wdiile  supporting  tlie  body-w^eight  has  a  different  form, 
and  the  tissues  enclosed  within  it  a  different  position,  than  when 
not  bearing  weight.  Since  loading  and  unloading  of  the  foot  are 
continually  alternating,  the  relations  of  internal  pressure  even  in 
the  standing  animal  are  continuously  changing,  so  that,  strictly 
speaking,  the  hoof  is  never  at  rest. 

The  changes  in  form  take  place  in  the  following  order:  the 
body-weight  falls  from  above  upon  the  os  coronae,  os  pedis,  and 
navicular  bone,  and  at  the  moment  that  the  foot  is  placed  upon 
the  ground  is  trans- 
mitted through  the  sen- 
sitive laminae  and  horny 
laminae  to  the  wall.  At 
the  instant  that  the  fet- 
lock reaches  its  lowest 
point  the  os  pedis  bears 
the  greatest  weight. 
Under  the  body-weight 
the  latter  yields,  and 
with  the  navicular  bone 
sinks  downward  and 
backward.  At  the  same 
time  the  upper  posterior 
portion  of  the  os  coro- 
nge  (Fig.  73,  A)  passes  backward  and  downward  between  the 
lateral  cartilages  (a),  which  project  above  the  upper  border  of 


Fig 


-  4    ^ 

Vertical,  transverse  section  of  a  foot  seen  from  beiiind  : 
A,  OS  coronfe  ;  B,  os  navicularis  ;  C,  os  pedis;  a,  lateral 
cartilage  ;  6,  anterior  portion  of  fleshy  frog  ;  c,  section  of 
perforans  tendon  ;  d,  suspensory  tendon  of  the  navicular 
bone  ;  I,  wall ;  m,  sole  ;  n,  white  line  ;  o,  frog. 


78  HORSESHOEING. 

the  wall,  and  presses  the  perforans  tendon  down  upon  the 
plantar  cushion.  The  plantar  cushion  being  compressed  from 
above,  and  being  unable  to  expand  downward,  is  correspond- 
ingly squeezed  out  towards  the  sides  and  crowded  against  the 
lateral  cartilages,  and  they,  yielding,  press  against  and  push  be- 
fore them  the  wall  at  the  quarters.  The  resistance  of  the  earth 
acts  upon  the  plantar  surface  of  the  hoof,  and  especially  upon 
the  frog,  and  it,  widening,  crowds  the  bars  apart,  and  in  this 
manner  contributes  to  the  expansion  of  the  quarters,  especially 
at  their  plantar  border  (see  Fig.  73).  The  horny  sole  under  the 
descent  and  pressure  of  the  os  pedis  sinks  a  little — that  is,  the 
arch  of  the  sole  becomes  somewhat  flattened.  All  these  changes 
are  much  more  marked  upon  sound  unshod  hoofs,  because  in 
them  the  resistance  of  the  earth  upon  the  sole  and  frog  is  pro- 
nounced and  complete.  These  changes  in  form  are  more  marked 
in  front  feet  than  in  hind.  In  defective  and  diseased  hoofs  it 
may  happen  that  at  the  moment  of  greatest  weight-bearing,  in- 
stead of  an  expansion  a  contraction  may  occur  at  the  plantar 
border  of  the  quarters. 

Three  highly  elastic  organs  there  are  which  play  the  chief  part 
in  these  movements, — namely,  the  lateral  cartilages,  the  plantar 
cushion,  and  the  horny  frog.  Besides  these  structures,  indeed, 
dU  the  remaining  parts  of  the  horn  capsule,  especially  its  coro- 
nary border,  possess  more  or  less  elasticity,  and  contribute  to 
the  above-mentioned  changes  of  form. 

In  order  to  maintain  the  elastic  tissues  of  the  foot  in  their 
proper  activity,  regular  and  abundant  exercise,  with  protection 
against  drying  out  of  the  hoof,  is  absolutely  necessary,  because 
the  movements  of  the  different  structures  within  the  foot  and 
the  changes  of  form  that  occur  at  each  step  are  indispensable  in 
preserving  the  health  of  the  hoof.  Long-continued  rest  in  the 
stable,  drying  out  of  the  hoof,  and  shoeing  decrease  or  alter  the 
physiological  movements  of  the  foot,  and  this  leads  under  cer- 
tain conditions  to  foot  diseases,  with  which  the  majority  of  horse 
owners  are  entirely  unacquainted. 


HORSESHOEING.  79 

As  an  outward,  visible  indication  of  the  mobility  of  the  quar- 
ters upon  the  shoe  we  may  point  to  the  conspicuous,  brightly 
polished,  and  often  sunken  spots,  or  grooves,  upon  the  ends  of 
the  branches.  They  are  produced  partly  by  an  in-and-out 
motion  of  the  walls  at  the  quarters,  and  partly  by  a  forward  and 
backw^ard  gliding  of  the  quarters  upon  the  shoe. 

The  benefits  of  these  physiological  movements  within  the  hoof  are 
manifold  : 

1.  Through  them  shock  is  dispersed  and  the  body  protected 
from  the  evil  consequences  of  concussion  or  shock. 

2.  These  movements  increase  the  elasticity  of  the  entire  limb, 
and  in  this  way  contribute  much  to  a  light  and  elegant  gait. 

3.  They  maintain  a  lively  circulation  of  blood  in  the  vessels 
of  the  pododerm,  and  this  insures  a  rapid  growth  of  horn. 

Since  it  is  a  generally  accepted  fact  that  shoeing  interferes 
with  the  physiological  movements  of  the  hoof,  alters  them,  in- 
deed, almost  suppresses  them,  and  that  all  these  movements  are 
spontaneous  and  natural  only  in  sound  unshod  hoofs,  we  are  jus- 
tified in  regarding  shoeing  as  a  necessary  evil.  However,  it  is  in- 
dispensable if  we  wish  to  render  horses  serviceable  upon  hard 
artificial  roads.  If,  in  shoeing,  consideration  be  given  to  the 
structure  and  functions  of  the  hoof,  and  particularly  to  the  foot- 
surface  of  the  shoe,  the  ends  of  the  branches  being  provided 
with  a  smooth,  level  bearing-surface,  which  allows  free  play  to 
the  elastic  .horn  capsule,  in  so  far  as  this  is  not  hindered  by  the 
nails  we  need  have  no  fear  of  subsequent  disease  of  the  hoofs, 
provided  the  horse  is  used  with  reason  and  receives  proper  care. 


PART   II. 

CHAPTER   I. 
SHOEING   HEALTHY   HOOFS. 

A.   Examination  of  a  Horse  Preliminary  to  shoeing. 

An  exaiiiination  should  be  made  while  the  animal  is  at  rest, 
and  afterwards  while  in  motion.  The  object  of  the  examination 
is  to  gain  accurate  knowledge  of  the  direction  and  movements  of 
the  limbs,  of  the  form  and  character  of  the  feet  and  hoofs,  of  the 
manner  in  which  the  foot  reaches  and  leaves  the  ground,  of  the 
form,  length,  position,  and  wear  of  the  shoe,  and  distribution  of 
the  nail-holes,  in  order  that  at  the  next  and  subsequent  shoeings 
all  ascertained  peculiarities  of  hoof-form  may  be  kept  in  mind 
and  all  discovered  faults  of  shoeing  corrected. 

The  examination  is  best  conducted  in  the  following  order: 
Tlie  horse  should  first  be  led  at  a  walk  in  a  straight  line  from  the 
observer  over  as  level  a  surface  as  possible,  then  turned  about 
and  brought  back,  that  the  examiner  may  notice  the  direction  of 
the  limbs  and  the  manner  in  which  the  hoofs  are  moved  and  set 
to  the  ground.  While  the  animal  is  moving  a\vay  the  observer 
notices  particularly  the  hind  limbs,  and  as  it  comes  towards  him 
he  examines  the  fore-limbs.  Then  a  few  steps  at  a  trot  will  not 
only  show  whether  or  not  the  animal  is  lame,  but  will  often 
remove  all  doubt  in  those  cases  in  which,  while  the  animal  was 
walking,  the  examiner  was  unable  to  make  up  his  mind  as  to 
which  was  the  predominating  position  of  the  limb.  The  problem 
presented  is,  therefore,  to  determine  whether  or  not  the  direction 
80 


HORSESHOEING.  81 

of  the  limbs,  the  lines  of  flight  of  the  hoofs,  and  the  manner  in 
which  they  are  set  down  and  picked  up  are  regular.  If  there 
are  deviations  from  the  normal  they  will  fall  either  into  the  base- 
wide  and  toe-wide  group  or  into  the  base-narrow  and  toe-narrow 
group.  When  clear  upon  these  points  the  horse  is  allowed  to 
stand  quietly,  and  the  observer,  placing  himself  in  front,  examines 
the  foot  more  closely,  fixes  the  direction  of  the  foot  axis  clearly 
in  his  mind,  marks  also  the  form  and  character  of  the  hoofs  and 
the  position  of  the  coronets,  as  far  as  these  pans  can  be  inspected 
from  in  front.  At  the  same  time  each  hoof  should  be  closely  in- 
spected to  determine  whether  the  slant  of  both  quarters  corre- 
sponds to  the  direction  of  the  long  pastern,  and  whether  the 
course  of  the  wall  from  the  coronet  to  the  plantar  border  is 
straight  or  bent  in  or  out  (contraction,  fulness).  Walls  curved 
from  above  to  below  always  indicate  an  unnatural  height  of  some 
section  of  the  wall  and  a  displacement  of  the  base  of  support  of 
the  foot.  In  order  to  gain  accurate  and  complete  knowledge  of 
the  position  of  the  limbs,  the  flight  of  the  hoofs,  and  the  manner 
of  setting  the  foot  to  the  ground,  the  horse  must  frequently  be 
moved  back  and  forth  many  times,  especially  when  the  standing 
position  is  somewhat  irregular  and  the  hoofs  are  of  different 
shapes. 

At  this  point  begins  the  examination  of  the  position  of  the 
limbs,  and  the  form  of  the  feet  and  hoofs,  in  profile.  After  cast- 
ing a  glance  over  the  entire  body,  so  as  to  gain  an  idea  of  the 
animal's  weight,  height,  and  length,  the  attention  is  turned  to  the 
position  and  direction  of  the  limbs  and  hoofs.  The  eye  should 
particularly  note  whether  the  form  of  the  hoof  corresponds  to 
the  position  of  the  limb,  and,  furthermore,  whether  the  slant  of 
the  fetlock  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  wall  at  the  toe, — that  is, 
whether  the  foot  axis  is  straight  or  broken ;  also  whether  the 
toes  and  quarters  are  parallel,  for  the  toe  is  sometimes  bulging 
(convex)  or  hollowed  out  (concave)  between  the  coronet  and 
plantar  border,  and  the  quarters  are  freciuently  contracted  and 
drawn  or  shoved  under  the  foot  (w^eak  quarters).     If  the  wall 

6 


82  HORSESHOEING. 

presents  rings  the  observer  should  note  their  position  with  refer- 
ence to  one  another  and  to  the  coronet,  and  also  their  extent. 
and,  furthermore,  should  determine  whether  or  not  they  cross 
one  another  (thrush  of  the  frog).  At  the  same  time  he  should 
notice  the  length  of  the  shoes. 

Next,  the  feet  should  be  raised  and  the  examiner  should  notice 
the  width  of  the  hoof,  the  arching  of  the  sole,  the  character  of 
the  frog,  the  position  of  the  bulbs  of  the  heel,  as  well  as  the 
presence  of  any  cracks  or  clefts  in  the  wall.  Then  the  old  shoes 
should  be  examined  as  to  their  age,  form,  the  distribution  and 
direction  of  their  nail-holes  ("  punching"),  position,  and  wear. 
With  respect  to  the  form  of  the  old  shoe,  one  should  observe 
whether  or  not  it  corresponds  to  the  form  of  the  hoof.  The 
same  careful  examination  should  be  made  of  the  number  and 
distribution  of  the  nail-holes.  As  regards  the  position  of  the 
shoe,  one  must  first  ascertain  whether  it  completely  covers  the 
bearing-surface  of  the  wall,  and  whether  the  shoe  extends  be- 
yond the  wall  at  any  point  and  has  caused  interfering  or  given 
rise  to  irregular  wear.  Finally,  the  wear  of  the  shoe  should  be 
observed,  and  the  following  points  borne  in  mind :  One-sided 
wear,  uneven  setting  down  of  the  feet,  and  an  unnatural  course  of 
the  wall  are  often  found  together,  especially  when  uneven  wearing 
of  the  shoe  has  existed  for  a  long  time, — that  is,  during  several 
shoeings.  Asa  rule,  in  such  a  case  the  more  worn  branch  of 
the  shoe  is  too  near  the  centre  of  the  foot,  and  the  opposite 
branch  too  far  from  the  centre  (too  "  full")  ;  in  other  words,  the 
base  of  support  (shoe)  has  been  shifted  too  far  in  the  direction 
of  the  less  worn  branch.  Moreover,  increased  wear  of  a  part 
of  a  shoe  is  an  indication  that  the  section  of  the  wall  above  it 
is  too  high  (too  long),  or  that  the  wall  upon  the  opposite  side  of 
the  foot  is  too  low  (short).  The  twisting  movement  of  many 
hind  feet  should,  from  physiological  reasons,  not  be  hindered  by 
shoeing. 


HORSESHOEING.  83 

B.  Raising  and  holding  the  Feet  of  the  Horse  to  be 

shod. 

This  can  always  be  done  without  much  trouble  if  the  horse 
has  been  accustomed  to  it  from  early  colthood.  Certain  rules 
governing  the  manner  of  taking  hold  of  the  feet,  and  of  after- 
wards manipulating  them,  are  of  value. 

A  shoer  should  never  grasp  a  foot  suddenly,  or  with  both 
hands.  The  horse  should  first  be  prepared  for  this  act.  First 
see  that  the  horse  stands  in  such  a  position  that  he  can  bear  his 
weight  comfortably  upon  three  legs.  This  is  well  worth  no- 
ticing, and  if  the  horse  does  not  voluntarily  assume  such  an 
easy  position,  move  him  gently  until  his  feet  are  well  under  his 
body. 

If  the  shoer,  for  example,  wishes  to  raise  the  left  forefoot,  he 
stands  on  the  left  side  facing  the  animal,  speaks  quietly  to  him, 
places  the  palm  of  the  right  hand  flat  upon  the  animal's  shoul- 
der, and,  at  the  same  time,  with  the  left  hand  strokes  the  limb 
downward  to  the  cannon  and  seizes  the  cannon  from  in  front. 
With  the  right  hand  he  now  gently  presses  the  horse  towards  the 
opposite  side,  and  the  foot  becoming  loose  as  the  weight  is  shifted 
upon  the  other  leg,  he  lifts  it  from  the  ground.  The  right  hand 
now  grasps  the  pastern  from  the  inside  followed  by  the  left  hand 
upon  the  outside  ;  then,  turning  partly  to  the  right,  the  holder  sup- 
ports the  horse's  leg  upon  his  left  leg,  in  which  position  he  should 
always  stand  as  quietly  and  firmly  as  possible.  The  forefoot  should 
not  be  raised  higher  than  the  knee  (carpus),  nor  the  hind  foot 
higher  than  the  hock,  nor  either  foot  be  drawn  too  far  backward. 
In  lifting  the  left  hind  foot  the  animal  should  be  gently  stroked 
back  as  far  as  the  angle  of  the  hip,  against  which  the  left  hand  is 
placed  for  support,  while  the  right  hand  strokes  the  limb  down 
to  the  middle  of  the  cannon,  which  it  grasps /rom  behind.  While 
the  left  hand  presses  the  animal's  weight  over  towards  the  right 
side,  the  right  hand  loosens  the  foot  and  carries  it  forward  and 
outward  from  the  body  so  that  the  limb  is  bent  at  the  hock.    The 


84  HORSESHOEING. 

holder  then  turns  his  body  towards  the  right,  brings  his  left  leg 
against  the  anterior  surface  of  the  fetlock-joint,  and  carries  the 
foot  backward,  at  which  time  his  left  arm  passes  over  the  horse's 
croup  and  above  and  to  the  inner  side  of  the  hock.  Finally, 
both  hands  encompass  the  long  pastern. 

If  the  right  feet  are  to  be  raised,  the  process  is  simply  reversed. 

In  raising  the  feet  no  unnecessary  pain  should  be  inflicted  by 
pinching,  squeezing,  or  lifting  a  limb  too  high.  The  wise  shoer 
avoids  all  unnecessary  clamor  and  disturbance ;  quiet,  rapid, 
painless  methods  avail  much  more.  In  dealing  with  young 
horses  the  feet  should  not  be  kept  lifted  too  long ;  let  them 
down  from  time  to  time.  In  old  and  stiff  horses  the  feet  should 
not  be  lifted  too  high,  especially  in  the  beginning  of  the  shoeing. 

Vicious  horses  must  often  be  severely  handled.  Watch  the 
play  of  the  ears  and  eyes  continually,  and  immediately  punish 
every  exhibition  of  temper  either  by  jerking  the  halter  or  bridle 
vigorously,  or  by  loud  commands.  If  this  does  not  avail,  then 
if  soft  ground  is  at  hand  make  the  horse  back  as  rapidly  as 
possible  for  some  time  over  this  soft  surface  ;  it  is  very  disa- 
greeable and  tiresome  to  him.  To  raise  a  hind  foot  we  may 
knot  a  strong,  broad,  soft,  plaited  band  (side  line)  into  the  tail, 
loop  it  about  the  fetlock  of  the  hind  foot,  and  hold  the  end. 
This  often  renders  valuable  service.  The  holder  seizes  the  band 
close  to  the  fetlock,  draws  the  foot  forward  under  the  body,  and 
then  holds  it  as  above  described.  The  use  of  such  a  band  com- 
pels the  horse  to  carry  a  part  of  his  own  weight,  and  at  the  same 
time  hinders  him  from  kicking.  Before  attempting  to  place  this 
rope  or  band  about  the  fetlock,  the  front  foot  on  the  same  side 
should  bemised. 

The  various  sorts  of  twitches  are  objectionable,  and  their  use 
should  not  be  allowed  unless  some  painful  hoof  operation  is  to 
be  done.  The  application  of  the  tourniquet,  or  "  Spanish  wind- 
lass," to  the  hind  leg  is  equally  objectionable. 

Those  horses  which  resist  our  attempts  to  shoe  them  "\ve  do 
not  inunediately  cast  or  place  in  the  stocks,  but  first  have  a 


HORSESHOEING.  85 

quiet,  trustworthy  man  hold  them  by  the  bridle-reins  and 
attempt  by  gentle  words  and  soft  caresses  to  win  their  attention 
and  confidence. 

Ticklish  horses  must  be  taken  hold  of  boldly,  for  light  touches 
of  the  hand  are  to  such  animals  much  more  unpleasant  than 
energetic,  rough  handling.  Many  ticklish  horses  allow  their  feet 
to  be  raised  when  they  are  grasped  suddenly  without  any  pre- 
paratory movements. 

O.  Removing  the  Old  Shoes. 

If  a  horse's  hoofs  are  healthy,  all  the  shoes  may  be  taken  off 
at  the  same  time,  but  there  are  certain  diseases  of  the  hoof  in 
which  this  should  not  be  done. 

The  rule  to  follow  in  removing  every  shoe  is  to  draw  it  cau- 
tiously, not  wrench  it  away  with  violence.  Hoofs  w^hich  are 
dirty  should  first  be  cleansed,  preferably  with  a  stiff  brush. 
Next,  the  clinches  should  be  carefully  Hfted  by  means  of  a  rather 
dull  clinch  cutter  without  injuring  the  horn  of  the  wall.  In  order,, 
now,  that  the  nails  may  be  removed  singly,  the  shoe  must  be 
slightly  lifted.  This  may  be  done  in  one  of  two  ways.  The 
shoer  may  use  a  pair  of  pincers  with  broad  bills  which  will 
encompass  the  branch  of  the  shoe  and  come  well  together 
underneath  it.  The  handlrs  o\  tiie  pincers  are  then  moved  in 
the  (Vircction  of  the  branches  of  the  shoe.  The  second  method 
consists  in  raising  the  branches  of  the  shoe  by  driving  the  nail- 
cutter  from  behind  between  the  shoe  and  hoof  and  using  it  as  a 
lever  or  pry  to  loosen  the  shoe. 

Violent  and  excessive  twisting  of  the  hoof  and  straining  of 
ligaments  may  easily  occur,  but  the  smith  should  guard  against 
them  by  supporting  the  hoof  with  the  left  hand  or  with  the  leg 
just  above  the  knee,  while  loosening  the  shoe. 

D.  Preparing  the  Hoof  for  the  Shoe. 

This  preparation  is  usually  termed  paring,  trimming,  or  dress- 
ing.    It  is  a  most  important  step  in  the  process  of  shoeing,  and 


86 


HORSESHOEING. 


its  object  is  to  shorten  the  hoof,  which  has  grown  too  long  under 
the  protection  of  the  shoe,  and  prepare  it  to  receive  the  new 
shoe.  The  instruments  needed  for  this  work  are  the  rasp  and 
the  hoof-knife  (Fig.  74) ;  upon  large  and  hard  hoofs  a  pair  of 
sharp  nippers,  or  a  sharp  hewing  knife,  with  broad  handle  and 
perfectly  flat,  smooth  sides,  may  be  used,  since  these  instru- 
ments will  considerably  facilitate  and  hasten  the  work. 

Fig.  74. 


Gennau-Euelish  hoof-knife. 


After  the  shoer  has  carefully  examined  the  hoofs  in  the  man- 
ner described  upon  pages  79  and  80,  and  has  fixed  in  mind  the 
relation  of  the  height  of  the  hoofs  to  the  size  and  weight  of  the 
body,  he  cleanses  the  hoof  and  removes  all  stubs  of  old  nails. 
At  the  same  time  he  should  be  asking  himself  if,  ichere,  and  how 
much  horn  is  to  be  removed.  In  all  cases  all  loosely  attached 
fragments  of  horn  are  to  be  removed,  for  example,  chips  of 
horn  produced  by  repeated  bending  and  stretching  of  the  lower 
border  of  the  wall.  The  sole  is  then  freed  from  all  flakes  of 
dead  horn.  The  shoer  then  runs  the  rasp  around  the  outer 
border  of  the  wall  and  breaks  it  off  to  the  depth  to  which  he 
thinks  it  should  be  shortened,  and  then  cuts  the  wall  down  toi 
its  union  with  the  sole,  so  that  at  least  one-tenth  of  an  inch 
of  the  edge  of  the  sole  lies  in  the  same  level  as  the  bearing-' 
surface  of  the  wall.  Finally,  the  wall,  white  line,  and  outer  mar- 
gin of  the  sole,  forming  the  "  bearing-surface,"  must  be  rasped  until 
they  are  perfectly  horizontal,  except  that  at  the  toe  of  forehoofs 
this  bearing-surface  may  be  rasped  slightly  upward  (rolled  toe.) 

In  dressing  the  hoof  the  branches  of  the  frog  should  always  be 
left  prominent  enough  to  project  beyond  the  bearing-surface  of 


HORSESHOEING.  87 

the  quarters  about  the  thickness  of  an  ordinary  flat  shoe.  If  it 
be  weakened  by  paring,  it  is  deprived  of  its  activity,  shrinks,  and 
the  hoof  becomes  narrow  to  a  corresponding  degree.  The  frog 
should,  therefore,  be  trimmed  only  when  it  is  really  too  prominent. 
However,  loose  and  diseased  particles  of  horn  may  be  trimmed 
away  when  it  is  affected  with  thrush. 

The  6ars. should  be  spared  and  never  shortened  except  when 
too  long.  Their  union  with  the  wall  at  the  quarters  must  in  no 
case  be  weakened,  and  never  cut  through  (opening  up  the  heels). 
They  should  be  left  as  high  as  the  wall  at  the  quarters,  or  only 
a  little  less,  while  the  branches  of  the  sole  should  lie  about  one- 
twelfth  of  an  inch  lower. 

The  buttress  (angle  formed  by  the  union  of  wall  and  bar)  re- 
quires special  attention.  In  healthy  unshod  hoofs  the  bars  run 
backward  and  outward  in  a  straight  line  from  the  anterior  third  of 
the  frog.  In  shod  hoofs,  however,  it  happens  that  the  buttresses 
gradually  lengthen,  curl  inward,  and  press  upon  the  branches  of 
the  frog,  causing  the  latter  to  shrink.  In  such  cases  the  indica- 
tion is  to  remove  these  prolongations  of  horn  from  the  buttresses 
so  as  to  restore  to  the  bars  their  normal  direction. 

The  sharp  edge  of  the  plantar  border  of  the  -wall  should  be 
broken  away  with  a  rasp  until  the  relative  thickness  of  the 
wall  equals  its  absolute  thickness.  However,  in  healthy  hoofs, 
that  is,  in  those  whose  walls  are  straight  from  the  ooronet  to  the 
ground,  the  outer  surface  of  the  wall  should  never  be  rasped. 
The  only  exceptions  to  this  rule  are  those  cases  in  which  there 
is  an  outward  bending  of  the  lower  edge  of  the  wall,  most  fre- 
quent on  the  inner  side  wall  and  quarter. 

With  respect  to  the  inclination  of  the  ground-surface  of  the 
hoof  to  the  direction  of  the  fetlock  axis,  as  viewed  from  in 
front,  the  following  facts  are  established  : 

In  the  regular  standing  position  of  the  limbs  (seen  from  in 
front)  the  plantar  surface  of  a  hoof  is  at  right  angles  to  the  foot 
axis,  and  the  outer  and  inner  walls  are  of  equal  heights. 

In  the  base-wide  position  of  the  limbs  the  plantar  hoof-surface  is 


88 


HORSESHOEING. 


Fig.  75. 


more  or  less  inclined  to  the  foot  axis,  usually  to  a  very  small 
degree,  and  the  outer  wall  is  somewhat  higher  (longer)  and  more 
slanting  than  the  inner. 

In  the  base-narrow  position  of  the  limbs  the  plantar  hoof- 
surface  is  more  or  less  inclined  to  the  direction  of  the  foot  axis, 

usually  quite  considerably,  and  the 
inner  wall  is  somewhat  higher  than 
the  outer. 

The  foot  is  observed  from  the  side 
in  order  to  determine  the  proper  re- 
lation of  the  length  of  the  toe  to  the 
height  of  the  quarters. 

In  this  also  the  foot  axis  is  our  guide. 
If  this  axis  is  as  it  should  be,  the  wall 
at  the  toe  and  the  long  pastern  will 
have  the  same  slant  (Figs.  59,  60,  and 
61).  If  the  hoof  has  become  too  long 
under  the  protection  of  the  shoe,  this 
will  be  shown  by  the  foot  axis  being 
no  longer  a  straight  line,  but  broken 
backward  at  the  coronet  (Fig.  76); 
that  is,  the  hoof  in  comparison  with  the 
By  shortening  the  toe  more  than  the 
quarters  this  faulty  relation  will  be  corrected  (Fig.  77)  and  the 
foot  restored  to  its  proper  slant.  The  plantar  surface  of  the  hoof 
is  therefore  correct  (balanced)  -when  the  horse  places  the  foot 
flat  upon  the  ground  in  travelling-,  and  when  the  lines  bound- 
ing the  hoof,  viewed  from  in  front,  from  behind,  and  in  profile, 
correspond  to  the  direction  of  the  three  phalanges  (foot  axis). 

Finally,  this  fact  should  be  emphasized,  that  in  changing  from 
flat  shoes  to  those  with  calks,  or  the  reverse,  the  hoofs  must 
first  be  dressed  in  accordance,  so  that  the  foot  axes  will  remain 
straight,  and  the  feet  be  set  always  flat  to  the  ground  when  the 
new  shoes  are  on.  Each  hoof,  when  ready  for  the  new  shoe, 
should  be  let  down  and  the  horse  allowed  to  stand  upon  it  while 


Longitudinal  (vertical  i  section  of 
the  wall  at  the  toe  :  a  cis  the  abso- 
lute, and  a  b  the  relative  thickness 
of  the  wall.  With  a  as  the  centre, 
and  the  line  a  cas  a  radius,  a  circle 
is  drawn  ;  the  corner  of  horn  in  front 
of  this  circle  and  indicated  by  dot- 
ted lines  is  to  be  removed  with  the 
rasp. 

fetlock  will  be  too  slanting. 


HORSESHOEING. 


89 


it  is  again  carefully  examined  and  closely  compared  with  the 
opposite  hoof.  Only  after  such  close  inspection  has  proved  the 
dressing  to  be  faultless  can  the  hoof  be  considered  as  properly 


Fig.  70. 


Fig.  71 


Foot  with  an  untrimme'l  hoof;  the  foot 
axis  is  broken  backward,  and  there  is  a  sur- 
plus growth  of  honi  at  the  bottom  of  the  wall. 


The  same  foot  dressed  by  removal  of  that 
portion  of  the  wall  belov  the  dotted  line  in 
Fig.  76.  The  relation  between  hoof  and  pas 
tern  is  improved. 


prepared  and  ready  for  the  shoe.  The  two  front  hoo/s  and  the  ttvo 
hind  hoofs,  when  the  legs  are  in  the  same  position,  should  not  only  be 
of  equal  size,  but  also  in  proper  relation  to  the  size  and  weight  of  the 
body. 

E.  Preparing  the  Hoof  for  going  Barefoot. 
This  becomes  necessary  when  the  nature  of  the  ground  and 
the  kind  of  service  required  of  the  horse  render  shoeing  un- 
necessary. However,  to  go  barefoot  the  hoof  must  have  plenty 
of  horn.  After  removing  the  shoes  the  frog  should  be  pared 
down  nearly  to  the  level  of  the  wall,  and  the  sharp  outer  edge ^ 
of  the  wall  well  rounded  off  with  the  rasp,  in  some  cases  as  far 
as  the  white  line,  otherwise  large  pieces  of  the  wall  will  readily 
break  away.  Hoofs  with  very  slanting  walls  must  be  more 
strongly  rounded  off  than  upright  or  stumpy  hoofs.  Going^bare- 
foot  strenqthens  the  hoofs.  From  time  to  time  the  condition  of 
these  shoeless  hoofs  should  be  ascertained  by  inspection,  and 
any  growing  fault  in  shape  or  direction  of  the  horn  immediately 


90  HORSESHOEING. 

corrected.  It  quite  frequently  happens  that  the  sharp  edge  of 
the  wall  must  be  repeatedly  rounded,  especially  on  very  oblique 
walls  (outer  half  of  base-wide  hoofs),  and  the  quarters  may  re- 
quire frequent  shortening,  because  they  are  not  always  worn 
away  as  fast  as  the  horn  at  the  toe. 

P.  Making  Shoes.  "^ 

Besides  good,  tough  iron  for  the  shoe,  we  need  an  anvil  with 
a  round  horn  and  a  small  hole  at  one  end,  a  round-headed 
hand-hammer,  a  round  sledge,  a  stamping  hammer,  a  pritchel 
of  good  steel,  and,  if  a  fullered  shoe  is  to  be  made,  a  round 
fuller.  Bodily  activity  and,  above  all  else,  a  good  eye  for 
measurement  are  not  only  desirable,  but  necessary.  A  shoe 
should  be  made  thoughtfully,  but  yet  quickly  enough  to  make 
the  most  of  the  heat. 

The  iron  of  which  horseshoes  are  made  is  derived  from  the 
natural  iron  ore.  Germany  (Rheinland  Westphalia)  is  very  rich 
in  iron  ore.  Iron  used  for  technical  purposes  is  not  chemically 
pure.  Pure  iron  is  rather  too  soft,  and  is  therefore  mixed  with 
different  substances,  mostly  with  "  carbon,"  the  most  important 
ingredient  of  our  fuel.  Of  course,  the  iron  contains  a  very  small 
quantity  of  carbon  (0.5  to  5  per  cent.).  When  iron  contains  more 
than  2.3  per  cent,  of  carbon  it  is  hard,  brittle,  and  more  easily 
melted,  and  is  known  as  crude  iron,  or  raw  iron,  because  it  is 
derived  from  the  raw  product, — black  ore.  The  melted  crude 
iron  is  called  cast  iron.     Iron  is  ductile  if  it  contains  less  than 

*  On  a  shoe  we  distinguish  an  outer  and  an  inner  branch.  The  anterior 
portion,  formed  by  the  union  of  the  two  branches,  is  called  the  toe.  The 
upper  surface,  upon  which  the  hoof  rests,  is  called  the  hoof-mrfacr,  and  the 
under  surface,  which  is  in  contact  with  the  ground,  the  groinul-surjaec,  That 
portion  of  the  hoof-surface  which  is  in  direct  contact  with  the  lower  border 
of  the  wall,  the  white  line,  and  a  narrow  margin  of  the- sole  is  termed  the 
bearing -surface,  and  when  necessary  "  concaving"  (seating)  extends  from  this 
to  the  inner  border  of  the  shoe.  On  the  ground-surface  is  seen  the  "  fullbr- 
ing"  or  "  crease." 


HORSESHOEING. 


91 


2.3  per  cent,  of  carbon,  and  is  called  forge  iron,  or  wrought  iron. 
Wrought  iron  is  fusible  only  at  a  high  temperature.  Only  weld- 
able  iron  containing  less  than  1.6  per  cent,  of  carbon  is  suitable 
for  general  use.  Of  this  iron  we  distinguish  two  sorts, — steel  and 
wrought  iron.  A  larger  percentage  of  carbon  is  found  in  steel 
than  in  wrought  iron.  Steel  is  hard,  can  be  tempered,  and  may 
be  called  tempered  wrought  iron.    In  order  to  temper  or  harden 


Fig.  78. 


Fig.  79. 


Fig.  80. 


Fuller. 


Punch. 


Pritchel. 


steel,  bring  it  to  a  cherry-red  heat,  and  then  cool  it  suddenly  by 
dipping  it  in  cold  water  or  wet  sand.  The  tempered  steel  can 
again  be  softened  as  desired  by  heating  and  slowly  cooling.  By 
heating  to  a  high  temperature  in  a  forge  wrought  iron  will  be- 
come doughy,  and  may  then  be  intimately  united  (welded)  with 
another  piece  at  the  same  temperature  by  pressure  or  hammer- 
ing.   This  property  is  called  weldability  ;  it  is  of  great  importance 


92  HORSESHOEING. 

in  making  horseshoes.  The  heating  of  iron  until  it  reaches  the 
welding  stage  is  called  getting  a  "  heat."  The  act  of  welding 
wrought  iron  with  steel  is  called  "steeling.'" 

Regarding  the  tools,  tlie  following  hints  are  sufficient : 

The  anvil  should  have  a  level,  smooth,  flat  steel  face. 

Likewise,  the  round  head  and  flat  face  of  both  turnlng-liammer 
and  sledge  should  be  smooth. 

On  the  fidlering-hammer  (Fig.  78)  one  side  is  flat,  the  other 
convex,  and  both  sides  have  slightly  rounded  corners,  whicli 
causes  the  edge  to  lose  its  corners. 

The  hardy,  fuUvring-hammer^  and  cold  chisel  should  be  flawless 
on  the  edge. 

The  jynnch  (Fig.  7 'J),  used  to  make  the  nail-holes  in  the 
shoe,  has  a  dull  point,  whicli  should  correspond  in  size  with 
tko  head  of  the  horseshoe-nail  and  have  slightly  rounded 
corners. 

Th.Q pritchel(Y\%.  80)  should  not  taper  to  a  point,  but  should 
end  in  a  rectangular  surface  whose  length  is  twice  its  width,  in 
order  to  punch  iron  through  the  shoe  under  the  blow  of  the 
hammer. 

The  best  method  of  making  a  shoe  is  that  originated  by  Count 
Einsiedel.  It  may  be  followed  with  but  slight  alterations  in 
making  all  ordinary  shoes,  whether  heavy  or  light,  and  lias  this 
advantage,  that  it  enables  the  one  who  practises  it  for  a  time  to 
do  rapid,  neat,  and  elegant  work. 

To  make  a  flat  shoe,  take  the  length  of  the  hoof  from  the  point  of  the  toe 
to  the  buttress  and  the  greatest  width  of  the  hoof;  these  two  measurements, 
when  added  together,  give  the  length  of  the  bar  for  the  shoe.  The  bar 
should  be  of  su'-h  width  and  thickness  as  will  require  the  least  amount 
of  working.  For  a  shoe  with  heel-calks  the  bar  must  be  correspondingly 
longer. 

Sliould  we  wish  to  preserve  the  exact  outline  of  the  plantar  border  of  the 
wall,  we  may  advantageously  use  i\ve  j^odometer  invented  by  Evverloeff,  shown 
in  Fig.  81.  This  consists  of  a  perforated  sheet-iron  plate  one-sixteenth  to 
one-twelfth  of  an  inch  thick.  This  is  laid  upon  the  hoof,  and  the  outline  of 
the  wall  marked  upon  it  with  chalk. 


HORSESHOEING. 


93 


The  instruments  devised  for  this  purpose  by  Niisken,  Riquet,  and  others 
are  less  worthy  of  notice.  If  necessary,  we  can  use  a  broom-straAv  or  a 
small  stick,  and  mark  upon  them  the  length  and  width  of  the  hoof. 


Fk;.  R1. 


^i  To  make  a  front  shoe  (Figs,  84  and  85),  heat  the  bar  white- 
hot  just  beyond  its  middle,  run  over  it  lightly  with  a  hammer, 
turn  it  on  edge,  and  work  it  down  a  little,  make  a  quarter  turn 
to  the  right,  and  hammer  the  en- 
tire half  diamond-shaped.  Next, 
make  a  half-turn  to  the  left,  flatten 
the  right  edge  to  within  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  of  the  end  of 
the  branch,  hammer  it  smooth, 
turn  the  ground-surface  upper- 
most, and  give  the  branch  a  light 
bending.  Hold  the  branch  upon 
its  outer  (high)  edge,  and  with 
the  round  head  of  the  hand- 
hammer  bend  it  into  a  half-circle 
(Fig.  82),  and  if  necessary  imme- 
diately concave  it  with  or  without 
the  help  of  the  sledge.  The  con- 
caving should  end  about  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  from  the  end 
of  the  branch.  Now  turn  the  branch  and  fuller  it,  or  fuller  it 
first  and  concave  afterwards.  The  fuller  should  be  set  in  about 
one-twelfth  of  an  inch  from  the  edge  for  small  shoes,  some- 
what more  for  large  shoes,  and  led  from  the  end  of  the  branch 
towards  the  toe,  twice  being  necessary  to  make  the  fullering  of 
sufficient  depth.  Next,  stamp  the  holes,  punch  them  through 
with  the  pritchel,  run  over  the  surfaces,  go  over  the  outer  edge 
of  the  shoe  upon  the  horn,  and,  finally,  hammer  the  bearing- 
surface  smooth  and  horizontal.  The  left  branch  is  made  in  the 
same  way,  except  that  it  is  turned  to  the  left  and  the  fullering 
carried  from  the  toe  to  the  heel.     Any  ordinary  shoe  can  and 


Podometer  (Ewerloeff 's;. 


94  HORSESHOEING. 

should  be  completed  in  the  rough  in  two  heats.     One  pair  of 
shoes  require  from  eight  to  fifteen  minutes. 

The  hind  shoe  (Fig.   91)   is  made  in  Hke   manner,  but  the 
branches  are  not  bent  in  a  circle  but  given  that  form  shown  in 

Fig.  82.  Fig.  83. 


The  curvature  of  a  branch  of  a  front  shoe.  The  curvature  of  a  branch  of  a  hind  shoe. 

Fig.  83.    Concaving  is  not  necessary;  it  is  sufficient  merely  to 
round  the  inner  edge  of  the  web. 

Since  in  bending  the  shoe,  and  especially  the  toe  of  a  hind 
shoe,  the  inner  edge  is  crowded  together  (back-set)  and  thick- 
ened to  the  same  extent  that  the  outer  edge  is  stretched  and 
thinned,  we  must  remember  to  do  away  with  these  inequalities 
of  thickness  and  strain  by  hammering  the  shoe  smooth. 

Peculiarities  of  the  Shoe. 
They  are  dependent  upon  the  structure,  direction,  and  posi- 
tion of  the  leg  and  hoof,  as  well  as  upon  the  horse's  service  and 
the  nature  of  the  ground.  Since  the  shoe  is  an  artificial  base 
of  support,  and  since  a  proper  surface  of  support  is  of  the 
greatest  importance  in  preserving  the  soundness  of  the  feet  and 
legs,  careful  attention  must  be  given  to  this  matter.  Naturally 
shoes  designed  for  the  various  forms  of  hoofs  must  present 
equally  great  and  equally  numerous  differences  of  form,  as  well 
as  other  peculiarities. 


HORSESHOEING. 


95 


General  Properties.  1.  Form. — A  form  corresponding  to  the 
shape  of  tlie  hoof  is  indispensable  in  every  shoe.  Front  and 
hind  and  right  and  left  shoes  should  be  sharply  defined  and  easily 
distinguishable.     Front  shoes  must,  above  all  else,  be  circular 


Fig.  84. 


Fig.  85. 


Right  front  shoe,  ground-suriace. 


Right  front  shoe,  hoof-surface :    o,  bearing-sur- 
face; 6.  concaving,  or  "seating." 


round  at  the  toe.     Hind  shoes,  on  the  contrary,  shouid  be  round 
pointed  at  the  toe,  yet  not  too  much  so,  but  as  in  Fig.  1)1. 

2.  Width. — All  shoes  should  be  wider  webbed  (more  covered) 
at  the  toe  than  at  the  ends  of  the  branches.  The  medium  width 
should  be  about  twice  the  thickness  of  the  wall. 

3.  Thickness. — Each  shoe  should,  in  general  terms,  be  so 
thick  that  it  need  not  be  renewed  under  four  weeks.  Lungwitz 
found  that  the  average  required  thickness  is  about  seven-six- 
teenths of  an  inch.  Of  course,  this  thickness  must  be  dimin- 
ished or  increased  according  to  the  rapidity  of  wear  of  the  shoe. 
Shoes  without  calks  should  be  of  uniform  thickness,  unless  there 
are  special  reasons  for  making  them  otherwise. 

4.  Length. — For  draught-horses  they  should  be  long  enough 
to  reach  the  bulbs  of  the  heel,  otherwise  shorter,  though  in  other 
respects  they  may  differ  (see  "  special  properties""),  but  should  in 
all  cases  completely  cover  the  bearing-surface  of  the  hoof. 


96  HORSESHOEING. 

5.  Surfaces. — That  part  of  the  hoof-surface  of  the  shoe  which 
is  in  contact  with  the  hoof  (bearing-surface  of  the  shoe,  Fig.  86, 

a)  should  be  horizontal  and  wide  enough  to 
cover  the  wall,  the  white  line,  and  from  a 
twelfth  to  an  eighth  of  an  inch  of  the  outer 
edge  of  the  sole.  Shoes  for  large  hoofs  re- 
quire a  broader  bearing-surface  than  those 

Transverse   section   of  a  n     i  o  mi 

branch  of  a  front  shoe :  a.    ^or  Small  hoofs.     The  concavuig,  or  "seat- 
bearing-surfiiee :    b.  con-    ji^ig"  iY[„  gg   /,\  should  be  made  deeper  or 

caving:     c,    fullering,   or  '^      ^      °  ^'  ^ 

"crease";  d,  nail-hole.  shallower,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
sole.  Shoes  for  hoofs  with  strongly  arched 
(very  concave)  soles,  do  not  require  any  concaving  (hind  hoofs, 
narrow  fore-hoofs).  The  object  of  concaving  is  to  prevent 
pressure  of  the  shoe  upon  the  horny  sole. 

The  ground-surface  of  the  shoe  should  be  flat  and  jierfectly 
horizontal,  except  at  the  toe,  which  may  be  turned  upward  (roll- 
ing toe,  "  rolling  motion"). 

6.  Borders. — The  outer  border  should  usually  be  moderately 
base-narrow, — that  is,  the  circumference  of  the  ground-surface  of 
the  shoe  should  be  less  than  the  circumference  of  its  hoof-surface  ; 

Fig.  87. 


Correct  and  (6)  incorrect  fullering. 

in  other  words,  the  entire  outer  border  of  the  shoe  should  be 
bevelled  under  the  foot.  Shoes  made  base-narrow  are  not  so 
easily  loosened,  and  materially  assist  in  preventing  interfering. 
The  inner  border  should  be  moderately  rounded. 

7.  The  "  Fullering"  (Fig.  86,  c). — In  depth  it  should  be  about 
two-thirds  the  thickness  of  the  shoe,  of  uniform  width,  and 
"  clean."  A  fullering  is  not  absolutely  necessary,  but  it  makes 
the  shoe  lighter  in  proportion  to  its  size,  facilitates  a  uniform 


HORSESHOEING.  97 

placing  of  the  nail-holes,  renders  the  ground-surface  somewhat 
rough,  and,  because  it  is  rather  difficult  to  make,  increases  the 
workman's  skill. 

8.  Nail-Holes  (Fig.  86,  d). — The  importance  of  the  nail- 
holes,  as  regards  their  character^  number,  distribution,  depth,  and 
direction,  cannot  be  over-estimated,  because  by  the  nails  which 
are  driven  through  them  the  stability  of  the  shoe  upon  the  hoof 
should  be  maintained  without  injuring  the  sensitive  structures, 
splitting  the  horny  wall,  or  immoderately  interfering  with  the 
elasticity  of  the  hoof.  Each  nail-hole  should  taper  uniformly 
from  the  ground  to  the  hoof-surface  (funnel-shaped).  For  a 
medium-weight  shoe  six  nail-holes  are  sufficient,  while  for  all 
heavy  stioes,  especially  those  with  toe-  and  heel-calks,  eight  are 
indicated ;  however,  it  should  by  no  means  be  said  that  every 
nail- hole  should  contain  a  nail.  Hind  shoes  usually  require  one 
more  nail-hole  than  front  shoes,  yet  seldom  more  than  eight.  In 
front  shoes  the  nail-holes  should  be  placed  in  the  anterior  half 
of  the  shoe  (Figs.  84  and  85),  while  in  hind  shoes  they  are  to 
be  placed  in  the  anterior  two-thirds  of  the  shoe,  and  in  both 
cases  so  distributed  that  the  toe  shall  be  without  nail-holes  (Fig. 
91).  The  depth  of  the  nail-holes — that  is,  their  distance  from 
the  outer  edge  of  the  shoe — will  depend  always  upon  the  thick- 
ness of  the  wall,  and  should  equal  the  absolute  (real)  thick- 
ness of  the  wall  (Fig.  75).  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  all  nail- 
holes  should  not  be  placed  at  the  same  depth  (for  thickness  of 
the  wall,  see  p.  49). 

The  direction  in  which  the  nail-holes  should  pass  through  the 
shoe  depends  upon  the  obhquity  of  the  wall.  The  nail-holes 
around  the  toe,  as  a  rule,  should  incline  somewhat  inward,  the 
holes  at  the  sides  less  so,  while  those  at  the  quarters  should  be 
punched  straight, — that  is,  should  pass  perpendicularly  through 
the  shoe. 

Both  front  and  hind  shoes  for  army  horses  in  time  of  war  and 
manoeuvres  should  be  so  punched  that  one  or  two  nails  may  be 
placed  in  the  posterior  half  of  the  shoe. 

7 


98  .  HORSESHOEING. 

9.  Clips  (Fig.  88)  are  half-cireular,  leaf-like  ears  drawn  up- 
ward from  the  outer  edge  of  the  shoe.  They  should  be  strong 
and  without  flaw  at  the  base,  and  somewhat  higher  and  thicker 
upon  hind  than  upon  front  shoes.     Their  heiglit  on  flat  shoes 

Fig.  88. 


r^ A. 


Form  of  clips  :  a,  correct ;  6.  indifferent ;  c,  faulty. 

should  equal  the  thickness  of  the  shoe,  while  on  shoes  with  toe- 
and  heel-calks  they  should  be  somewhat  higher. 

According  to  their  position  we  distinguish  toe-  and  side-clips. 
They  secure  the  shoe  against  shifting;  therefore,  as  a  rule,  every 
shoe  must  have  a  toe-clip.  A  side-clip  should  always  be  drawn 
up  on  that  branch  of  the  shoe  which  first  meets  the  ground  in 
locomotion. 

A  Shoe  with  Heel-Calks. — All  shoes  with  heel-calks  designed 
for  healthy  hoofs  should  be  so  made  and  applied  that  they  will 
disturb  the  normal  setting  down  of  the  foot  as  little  as  possible, 
that  the  wear  of  the  shoe  will  take  place  uniformly,  and  slipping 
be  diminished.  The  toe  of  the  shoe  must,  therefore,  be  left 
somewhat  thicker  than  the  branches  just  in  front  of  the  heel- 
calks.  Moreover,  every  front  shoe  with  heel-calks  must  be  rela- 
tively long,  and  be  provided  with  considerable  rolling  motion  at 
the  toe ;  that  is,  the  shoe  should  be  turned  up  at  the  toe,  the 
bending  beginning  near  the  inner  edge  of  the  web.  The  three- 
or  four-cornered,  somewhat  conical  heel-calks  with  rounded 
edges  should  not  be  higher  than  the  thickness  of  the  shoe.  With 
reference  to  the  direction  of  the  ends  of  the  branches,  we  should 
see  to  it  that  they  do  not  rise  excessively,  but  that  they  assume 
as  near  as  possible  a  horizontal  direction  in  passing  back  to  the 
heels  (see  Fig.  90). 


HORSESHOEING. 


99 


■  Shoe  without  calks,  with  i)erfectly  level  hoof-  and 
ground-surfaces,  and  with  roh  at  the  toe  (flat,  rolling- 
motion  shoe). 

Fig.  90. 


Shoe  with  heel-calks  for  a  front  hoof. 


A  Shoe  with  Toe-  and  Heel-Calks. — Such  a  shoe  should 
everywhere  be  of  uniform  thickness,  and  should  have  a  toe-calk 

and  two  heel-calks  that 
^^^-  ^^'  are  somewhat   stronger 

and  longer  than  the  heel- 
calks  of  a  shoe  which 
has  no  toe-calk.  If 
to  a  shoe  of  uniform 
thickness  on  which  the 
heel-calks  are  somewhat 
higher  than  those  al- 
ready described  a  piece 
of  steel  (Fig.  91,  b)  of 
the  height  of  the  heel-calks  is  welded  at  the  toe,  we  have  a 
shoe  with  toe-  and  heel-calks.  The  toe-calk  should  never  be 
higher  than  the  heel- calks.  There  are  three  principal  kinds  of 
toe-calks, — namely : 

1.  The  Sharp  Toe-Calk. — A  square  piece  of  rather  wide  toe- 
steel,  of  which  one  corner  is  drawn  to  a  sharp  point.  The  shoe 
is  heated  white-hot  at  the  toe  and  this  sharp  point  driven  into 
the  shoe  at  the  middle  of  the  toe.  At  the  first  heat  the  square 
piece  of  steel  standing  upon  one  of  its  corners  is  beaten  down 
and  welded  from  the  centre  to  the  right  and  left  corners.  In  the 
second  heat  the  calk  is  more  securely  welded  and  hammered 
into  shape.  [This  method  of  toeing  shoes  is  now  but  little  used. 
Its  chief  disadvantage  is  that  it  requires  two  heats  and  consid- 
erable time.  On  the  other  hand,  by  this  method  the  calk  is 
more  securely  welded  to  the  shoe  than  by  the  ordinary  methods, 
and  it  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  winter  shoeing. — Adams.] 

2.  The  Blunt  Toe-Calk. — It  is  a  rather  long  four-cornered  piece 
of  steel  with  a  spud  or  "  ear"  raised  upon  one  edge.  It  is 
welded  on  in  one  heat. 

3.  The  Half-Sharp  Toe-Calk  (Coffin-Lid  Toe-Calk).— It  resem- 
bles the  blunt  calk,  except  that  the  surface  of  the  calk  that  is 
applied  to  the  shoe  is  somewhat  broader  and  longer  than  the 


100 


HORSESHOELNG. 


surface  that  comes  in  contact  with  the  ground.  It  is  welded  on 
in  one  heat,  the  prolongations  of  the  base  of  the  calk  being 
welded  to  the  shoe  with  light  taps,  as  in  the  case  of  the  right  and 
left  corners  of  the  sharp  toe-calk  mentioned  above.     The  first 

and  third  kinds  are  most 
Fig.  91.  suitable  for  winter,  because 

they    can   be    welded    on 
more  securely. 

Since  heel-  and  toe-calks 
raise  the  hoof  far  from  the 
ground  and  prevent  all 
pressure  upon  the  frog, 
they  diminish  the  elasticity 
of  the  hoof  and  injure  it. 
Tliey  are  injurious  also  to 
the  joints,  because  they 
furnish  a  base  of  support 
which  is  essentially  smaller 
than  that  afforded  by  a  flat 
shoe  (Fig.  91).  However, 
they  are  indispensable  for 
heavy  draught  purposes  on 
slippery  roads  and  in  winter.  Upon  all  other  roads  and  in 
summer  they  are  superfluous,  at  least  upon  front  hoofs,  es- 
pecially as  they  do  not  wholly  prevent  slipping. 

Special  Properties. — The  many  different  forms  of  hoofs  re- 
quire a  great  variety  of  shoes.  Following  are  the  special 
peculiarities  of  each  of  the  chief  classes  of  shoes. 

1.  Shoe  for  a  Regular  Hoof. — Outer  edge :  moderately  base- 
narrow  (bevelled  under)  all  around.  Distribution  and  direction 
of  the  nail-holes  :  regular.  Length  :  longer  than  the  hoof  by  the 
thickness  of  the  shoe. 

2.  Shoe  for  an  Acute- Angled  Hoof. — Outer  edge :  strongly  base- 
narrow  around  the  toe,  but  gradually  becoming  perpendicular 
towards  the  ends  of  the  branches.    Punching  :  regular,  except  that 


Right  hind  shoe  with  toe-  and  heel-oallis  :  a,  heel- 
calks  ;  b,  toe-calk ;  c,  greatest  width  of  the  base  of 
support  (i.e.,  contact  with  the  ground)  of  this  shoe 
when  without  toe-  and  heel-calks  ;  d,  the  greatest, 
and  e,  the  least  width  of  the  base  of  support  of  this 
shoe  with  calks. 


HORSESHOEING.  101 

the  nail-holes  at  the  toe  must  mcline  inward  somewhat  more 
than  usual.     Length  :  rather  longer  than  the  preceding  shoe. 

3.  Shoe  for  an  Upright  (stumpy)  Hoof. — Outer  edge  :  perpen- 
dicular at  the  toe ;  but  if  the  hoof  is  very  steep,  then  base-wide 
at  the  toe, — i.e..,  bevelled  downward  and  outward.  Punching: 
last  nail  should  be  placed  just  beyond  the  middle  of  the  shoe. 
Direction  of  the  holes  :  perpendicular.  Length  :  short ;  at  most, 
one-tenth  of  an  inch  longer  than  the  hoof.  Li  the  case  of  a 
'^  bear-hoof"  (see  Fig.  62)  the  shoe  should  be  long. 

4.  Shoe  for  a  Base-  Wide-Hoof. — Outer  edge  ;  the  outer  branch 
should  be  moderately  base-narrow, — i.e..,  bevelled  downward 
and  inward,  tlie  inner  branch  perpendicular.  Punching :  upon 
the  outer  branch  the  holes  should  extend  well  back,  wiiile  upon 
the  inner  branch  they  are  to  be  crowded  forward  towards  the 
toe.  Length  will  depend  upon  the  obliquity  of  the  hoof  as  seen 
in  profile  (see  1,  2,  and  3). 

5.  Shoe  for  a  Base-Narroiv  Hoof. — Outer  edge  :  the  outer  branch 
either  perpendicular  or  base-wide,  the  inner  branch  strongly 
base-narrow.  Punching :  the  n?al-holes  in  the  outer  branch 
should  be  crowded  towards  the  toe  and,  under  certain  condi- 
tions, punched  deeper  than  the  wall  is  thick,  on  account  of  the 
greater  width  of  this  branch ;  in  the  inner  branch  the  nail-holes 
are  to  be  distributed  back  to  the  c[uarler  and  punched  light. 
Length  will  depend  upon  the  oblic|uity  of  the  hoof.  The  outer 
branch  should  be  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  longer  than  the 
inner. 

6.  Shoe  for  a  Wide  Hoof. — Somewhat  wider  webbed  (more 
covered)  than  usual.  Outer  edge :  bevelled  under  the  foot  all 
around  (base-narrow).  Punching :  nail-holes  carried  back  into 
the  posterior  half  of  the  shoe.  Length  will  depend  upon  the 
oblic|uity  of  the  hoof. 

7.  Shoe  for  a  Narrow  Hoof. — Outer  edge  :  moderately  bevelled 
under  the  foot  at  the  toe  (base-narrow),  elsewhere  perpendicular. 
Distribution  of  the  nail-holes :  regular.  Direction  of  the  nail- 
holes  :  perpendicular  and  towards  the  quarters,  inclining  some- 


102  HORSESHOEING. 

what  outward.  The  holes  about  the  toe  incline  somewhat 
inward.  Length  will  depend  upon  the  obliquity  of  the  hoof. 
Concaving  unnecessary. 

The  forms  of  shoes  described  in  paragraphs  2  to  7  differ  from 
that  described  in  paragraph  1,  but  are  necessary  in  order  to  lessen 
the  injurious  consequences  of  irregular  loading  (unbalancing)  of 
the  feet,  and  of  unfavorable  bases  of  support  of  the  body-weight. 

G.  Choosing  the  Shoe. 

The  choice  of  the  shoe  for  a  given  horse  is  not  at  all  difficult 
after  we  have  carefully  considered  his  weight,  the  nature  of  his 
work,  his  standing  position,  gait,  the  form  of  his  hoofs,  and  quality 
of  the  horn,  bearing  in  mind  the  general  and  pecuhar  properties 
of  shoes.  As  a  rule,  we  choose  a  shoe  that  is  longer  than  the 
hoof,  because  the  latter  grows  and  carries  the  shoe  forward  with 
it,  and  because  the  quarters  gradually  become  lowered  by  rub- 
bing and  wearing  away  upon  the  branches  of  the  shoe.  The 
length  of  the  shoe  is  of  especial  importance.  For  horses  em- 
ployed for  slow,  heavy-draught  purposes  the  shoe  supplied  with 
heel-  and  toe-calks  should  extend  backward  far  enough  to  sup- 
port the  bulbs  of  the  heels.  On  the  contrary,  horses  used  at  a 
trot  or  gallop,  as  coach-  and  saddle-horses,  require  shorter  shoes. 
^Fig.  94.) 

The  weight  of  the  shoe  should  be  so  adjusted  to  the  demands 
of  the  horse's  work,  the  condition  of  the  legs  (whether  used  up 
with  work  or  not),  and  the  nature  of  the  ground  that  the  shoeing 
will  last  at  least  a  month.  Hard  roads  and  a  heavy,  clumsy  gait 
require  strong,  durable  shoes,  which,  under  some  conditions,  are 
to  be  rendered  still  more  durable  by  welding  in  steel.  For  mod- 
erate service  upon  soft  roads  we  should  use  light  shoes.  Run- 
ning horses  require  unusually  thin  and  narrow  shoes  of  steel. 

H.  Shaping  and  fitting  Shoes.    General  Considerations. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  important  parts  of  horseshoeing.  Its 
object  is  to  so  fashion  or  shape  the  shoe  which  has  been  chosen 


HORSESHOEING. 


103 


for  a  particular  hoof  that  its  circumference  will  exactly  corre- 
spond to  the  lower  circumference  of  the  previously  prepared  hoof, 
and  its  bearing-surface  will  fit  air-tight  to  the  bearing-surface  of 
the  hoof.  At  this  time  all  defects  in  the  surfaces  of  hoof  and 
shoe  and  in  the  nail-holes  must  be  remedied,  the  clips  drawn  up, 
and  the  shoe  made  to  fit  perfectly.  The  bearing- surface  of  the 
shoe,  especially  at  the  ends  of  the  branches,  must  be  kept  hori- 
zontal* and  smooth,  and  its  width  regulated  by  the  width  of 
the  bearing  surface  of  the  hoof  (see  page  86).     Perfectly  unifonn 

Fig.  92. 


Shod  fore-hoof  ■viewed  in  profile  to  show  the  "  roll"  at  the  toe. 

heating  is  absolutely  indispensable  in  shaping  the  shoe,  because 
an  irregularly  heated  shoe  twists  or  becomes  distorted  at  the 
warm  places.  Every  shoe  should  be  straight,  and  when  held 
before  the  eye  one  branch  should  exactly  cover  the  other.  A 
flat  shoe  laid  upon  a  level  surface  should  touch  at  all  parts  of  its 
ground-surface  ;  the  only  exception  to  this  is  the  shoe  with  a 
rolled  toe  (rolling  motion),  in  which  the  toe  is  turned  upward. 


*  The  horizontal  bearing-surface  is  in  accordance  with  nature,  because  the 
changes  of  form  of  the  hoof  wliich  talce  place  at  the  plantar  border  of  tlie 
wall,  on  burdening  and  unburdening  the  foot,  should  not  be  interfered  witli. 
A  horizontal  bearing-surface  best  fulfils  this  requirement. 


104 


HORSESHOEING. 


A  shoe  is  termed  ''■  trough-shajjecV^  when  only  the  inner  edge  of 
the  web  rests  upon  the  flat  surface.  It  is  faulty,  disturbs  the 
stability  of  the  foot,  and  shifts  the  weight  of  the  body  too  much 
upon  the  quarters. 

To  front  shoes  we  give  a  rolled  toe  (Fig.  92,  rolling  motion), 
by  which  we  mean  a  more  or  less  pronounced  upward  turn  of 
the  toe  of  the  shoe.  Ordinarily,  the  toe  begins  to  turn  up  at  tlip 
middle  of  the  web,  and  should  be  elevated  about  one-half  the 
thickness  of  the  iron.  The  rolled  toe  corresponds  to  the  natural 
wear  of  front  hoofs,  facilitates  the  "  breaking  over"  of  the  feet, 
and  insures  a  uniform  wear  of  the  shoe.  The  shoe  is  made  mod- 
erately hot  and  placed  on  the  foot  with  the  toe  clip  against  the 
wall  exactly  in  front  of  the  point  of  the  frog.  The  scorched 
horn  should  be  repeatedly  removed  with  the  rasp  until  a  perfect- 
fitting  bed  has  been  made 
Fig.  93.  upon  the  bearing-surface  of 

the  hoof  From  the  bearing- 
surface  of  the  shoe  to  the 
inner  border  of  the  web  the 
iron  must  be  free  from  the 
sole  around  its  entire  cir- 
cumference. The  horn  sole 
should  not  be  burnt,  because 
the  velvety  tissue  of  the  sole 
lies  immediately  above  it.  In 
the  region  of  the  nail-holes 
the  outer  borders  of  shoe 
and  wall  should  correspond. 
The  nail-holes  must  under 
all     conditions     cover    the 

Left  fore-hoof  of  normal  position  shod.  white    line.        FrOHl    the    last 

nail-hole  back  to  the  ends  of  the  branches,  for  hoofs  of  the  regular 
standing  position  of  the  limbs,  the  shoe  should  gradually  widen 
until  it  projects  at  each  quarter  from  a  twenty-fifth  to  a  twelfth 
of  an  inch  beyond  the  edge  of  the  wall.     The  posterior  half  of 


HORSESHOEING.  105 

the  shoe  should,  therefore,  be  somewhat  wider  than  the  hoof. 
The  effect  of  this  will  be  to  prolong  the  usefulness  of  the  shoes. 
With  respect  to  the  width  of  the  branches,  an  exception  arises  in 
the  case  of  hind  shoes,  in  which  the  inner  branch,  with  few  excep- 
tions, should  closely  follow  the  border  of  the  wall  ;  this  will 
prevent  interfering  and  tearing  off  the  shoe  by  the  opposite  foot. 

Between  the  ends  of  the  branches  and  the  frog  there  should 
be  enough  room,  with  few  exceptions,  to  pass  a  foot-pick. 

In  order  to  judge  of  the  width  of  a  shoe  which  has  been  fitted 
to  the  hoof,  it  is  of  advantage  to  seize  the  hoof  in  the  left  hand 
and,  extending  it  towards  the  ground,  to  observe  from  behind  and 
above  the  outer  border  of  the  shoe  and  the  surfaces  of  the  wall. 

Furthermore,  the  most  important  rule  is  that  the  shoe  should  alvmys' 
have  the  form  of  the  hoof  so  long  as  the  form  of  the  hoof  remains  un- 
altered. In  all  hoofs  that  have  already  undergone  change  of  form 
we  must  strive  to  give  the  shoe  that  form  which  the  hoof  had  bifore  it 
underwent  change.  Such  treatment  will  not  only  do  the  hoof  no 
injury,  but,  on  the  contrary,  is  of  advantage  to  it,  as  it  is  well 
known  that  in  time  the  hoof  will  accpire  the  form  of  the  shoe. 

Shaping  and  fitting  Shoes.     Special  Considerations. 

(«)  A  shoe  for  a  hoof  of  the  regular  form  fits  properly  when  the 
outer  border  of  the  shoe  in  the  region  of  the  nail-holes  closely 
follows  the  outer  edge  of  the  wall,  but  from  the  last  nail-hole  to 
the  end  of  each  branch  extends  beyond  the  wall  from  a  twenty- 
fifth  to  a  twelfth  of  an  inch,  the  shoe  is  straight,  lies  firmly  and 
air-tight  upon  the  bearing-surface  of  the  hoof,  the  nail-holes  fall 
exactly  upon  the  white  line,  and  there  is  sufficient  space  between 
the  frog  and  the  branches  of  the  shoe  for  the  passage  of  a  foot- 
pick.     The  branches  must  be  of  equal  length. 

While  in  fitting  a  shoe  to  a  hoof  of  regular  form  we  need  pay 
attention  only  to  the  form  of  the  hoof,  it  is  very  different  ivhen  we 
come  to  shape  and  fit  shoes  to  hoofs  of  irregular  forms.  In  these 
cases  we  must  consider  not  only  the  form  of  the  hoof  but  the  position 
of  the  limbs  and  the  distribution  of  ireight  in  the  hoof,  because  where 


106 


HORSESHOEING. 


the  most  "weig-ht  falls  the  surface  of  support  of  the  foot  must 
be  widened,  and  where  least  weight  falls  (on  the  opposite  side) 
the  surface  of  support  must  be  narrowed.  In  this  manner  the 
improper  distribution  of  weight  within  the  hoof  (an  unbalanced 
foot)  is  regulated, — that  is,  is  evenly  distributed  over  the  surface 
of  support.  The  manner  in  which  this  is  accomplished  in  the 
various  forms  of  hoofs  is  as  follows : 

(6)  An  acute-angled  hoof  recpires  the  shoe  described  in  para- 
graph 2,  page  100.  The  branches  must  be  long,  because  most  of 
the  weight  falls  in  the  posterior  half  of  the  foot,  and  long  branches 
extend  the  surface  of  support  backward,  while  the  surface  of 
support  in  front  is  to  be  diminished  by  making  the  toe  of  the 
shoe  base-narrow,  either  by  turning  it  up  or  by  bevelling  it  in 
under  the  foot.     A  shoe  for  an  acute-angled  hoof  fits  when  it 

Fig.  94. 


The  three  principal  forms  of  hoofs  shgd  with  fiat  shoes. 


is  otherwise  related  to  the  hoof  as  is  described  in  paragraph  a, 
page  105. 

(e)  An  obtuse-angled  hoof  (an  upright  or  stumpy  hoof)  presents 
exactly  reverse  conditions  with  respect  to  the  distribution  of 
weight  within  the  hoof,  and  is  treated  in  an  exactly  opposite  man- 
ner. The  surface  of  support, should  be  increased  at  the  toe  and 
diminished  at  the  quarters.  This  is  accomplished  by  a  shoe  pos- 
sessing the  peculiarities  described  in  paragraph  3,  page  101, 
whose  nail-holes  are  directed  either  straight  or  slightly  outward. 

(d)  A  base- wide  hoof  recjuires  the  surface  of  support  to  be 
widened  upon  the  inner  side  of  the  foot  and  narrowed  upon  the 


HORSESHOEING.  107 

outer  side,  because  the  inner  half  of  the  foot  bears  the  most 
weight.     A  shoe  having  the  peeuUarities  described  in  paragraph 

4,  page  101,  accomplishes  this  end. 

(e)  The  hose-narrow  hoof  is  just  the  reverse  of  the  preceding, 
and  requires  a  shoe  whose  peculiarities  are  described  in  paragraph 

5,  page  101.  While  in  the  normal  standing  position  of  the  limbs, 
viewed  from  in  front,  the  ends  of  the  branches  of  the  shoe 
should  be  ecpially  distant  from  the  middle  of  the  median  lacuna 
of  the  frog,  this  is  not  so  in  the  base-wide  and  base-narrow 
positions.  In  the  base-wide  position  the  outer  and  in  the  base- 
narrow  position  the  inner  branch  should  be  somewhat  farther 
from  the  median  lacuna  than  the  branch  of  the  opposite  side. 

(/)  The  wide  hoof  has  too  large  a  surface  of  support,  and,  there- 
fore, the  shoe  designed  for  it  should  possess  the  peculiarities 
enumerated  in  paragragh  6,  page  101. 

{g)  The  narrow  hoof  has  already  too  narrow  a  base  of  support, 
and  must  not  be  made  smaller ;  therefore,  the  shoe  should  not 
have  a  base-narrow  but  a  perpendicular  outer  border,  as  de- 
scribed in  paragragh  7,  page  101. 

Fitting  Shoes  to  Heavy  Draught-Horses. 
What  has  been  previously  said  concerning  shoeing  holds  good 
here  ;  however,  the  conditions  of  shoeing  are  somewhat  different 
in  heavy  horses,  and  particularly  with  respect  to  hoofs  which, 
Avithout  being  clearly  diseased,  have  been  injured  by  shoeing. 
The  entire  operation  requires  more  circumspection,  because  it  is 
more  difficult.  In  many  cases  one  will  find  that  the  width  that 
has  been  advised  for  the  outer  branch  of  the  shoe  at  the  quarter 
is  not  sufficient.  Indeed,  if  a  horse  has  wry  feet,  and  there  is 
unequal  distribution  of  weight  within  the  hoof,  and  we  attempt 
in  shoeing  it  to  follow  to  the  letter  the  directions  given  on  pre- 
ceding pages,  we  would  be  apt  to  favor  the  perpetuation  of  the 
defect.  In  such  cases  the  slant  of  the  wall  at  the  quarters  is  of 
the  greatest  practical  value  to  us  in  estimating  the  proper  width 
for  the  shoe  at  this  point. 


108 


HORSESHOEING. 


Fig.  95. 


When  uniform  setting  down  of  the  hoof  and  uniform  Avear  of 
the  shoe  are  desired,  every  point  in  the  coronary  band  in  the 

posterior  half  of  the  foot  must  re- 
ceive support  by  tlie  shoe.  This  ap- 
plies particularly  to  the  outer  halves 
of  hoofs  that  are  extremely  base-nar- 
row. If,  for  example,  the  coronet  of 
the  outer  quarter  projects  beyond  the 
plantar  border  of  the  quarter,  the 
outer  branch  of  the  shoe  from  the  last 
nail-hole  back  must  be  kept  so  wide 
(full)  that  an  imaginary  perpendicular 
line  dropped  from  the  coronary  band 
will  just  touch  the  outer  border  of 
the  shoe.  The  inner  branch,  on  the 
contrary,  should  follow  the  edge  of 
the  wall  as  closely  as  possible.  Fur- 
thermore, the  new  shoe  should  be 
given  more  curve, — that  is,  made 
wider  and  fitted  more  full  where  the  old  shoe  shows  greatest 
wear.  The  pr-incipal  thought  should  be  to  set  the  shoe,  which  shouldX 
always  he  regarded  as  the  base  of  support  of  the  hoof  farther  to-\ 
wards  the  more  strongly  worn  side.  Such  a  practice  renders  super-' 
fluous  the  wide  spread  and  popular  custom  of  bending  outward 
the  outer  quarter  and  heel-calk  of  hind  shoes.  From  the  manner 
in  which  a  horse  travels  and  the  wear  of  the  old  shoe,  we  esti- 
mate the  distance  that  the  branches  of  the  shoe  should  be  set 
from  the  middle  line  of  the  hoof.  If  in  following  out  this  plan 
the  bearing-surface  of  the  outer  quarter  of  the  wall  is  not  com- 
pletely covered,  the  quarter  will  be  pinched  and  squeezed  in- 
ward ;  this  should  be  prevented  by  a  broader  branch  punched 
so  deeply  that  the  holes  will  fall  upon  the  white  line  (Fig.  95). 

When  the  shoer  has  satisfied  himself  that  the  shoe  fulfils  every 
requirement  and  fits  perfectly,  it  is  to  be  cooled,  the  holes  opened 
with  an  oiled  pritchel,  and  the  shoe  brightened  with  a  file.     In 


Left  hind  shoe  with  a  broad,  base- 
wide  outer  branch  for  draught- 
horses  that  stand  markedly  base 
narrow  (close  behind). 


HORSESHOEING.  109 

filing,  all  sharp  edges  should  be  removed.  If  a  shoe  is  to  be 
filed  upon  the  outer  border,  to  give  it  a  neater  appearance,  the 
filing  should  be  done  lengthways  of  the  shoe,  and  not  crossways  ;  of 
course,  the  shoe  must  not  be  bent  by  being  improperly  clamped 
in  the  vice. 

It  indicates  much  greater  skill  in  making  and  fitting  shoes 
when  they  look  clean  and  finished  with  little  or  no  filing. 

In  the  preceding  remarks  I  have  insisted  upon  a  horizontal  bearing-surface 
for  all  shoes,  with  tlie  single  exception  of  shoes  provided  with  the  rolled 
toe  (rolling  motion).  As  far  as  I  can  judge  from  the  literature  of  shoeing, 
and  from  what  I  have  seen  with  my  own  eyes  in  many  countries,  this  is  the 
most  wide-spread  practice.  In  Germany,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  another 
method,  followed  in  the  military  shoeing-shops,  which  consists  in  placing  the 
bearing-surface  of  the  shoe  as  nearly  as  possible  at  right  angles  to  the  slant  of  the 
wall.  According  to  this  method  the  bearing-surface  of  the  shoe,  depending 
upon  the  direction  of  the  wall  (viewed  from  in  front,  from  behind,  and  from 
the  side),  should  incline  more  or  less,  now  backward,  now  inward,  now 
horizontal,  and  now  outward.  Shoes  for  wide  hoofs  are  given  a  bearing- 
surface  which  inclines  inward,  while  for  narrow  hoofs  the  shoes  have  a  hori- 
zontal bearing-surface.  Shoes  for  wry  hoofs  have  a  bearing-surface  which 
inclines  downward  and  inward  for  the  slanting  wall,  and  for  the  steeper  wall 
a  horizontal  bearing-surface,  which  towards  the  end  of  the  branch  may  in- 
cline slightly  downward  and  outward.  Besides,  the  bearing-surface  of  the 
ends  of  the  branches,  viewed  from  the  side,  has  a  backward  and  downward 
inclination.     This  method  is  practicable  only  in  part. 

I.  Nailing  the  Shoe. 

This  is  that  act  of  horseshoeing  by  which  the  shoe  is  fastened 
to  the  hoof  by  special  nails  called  hoof-nails  or  horseshoe-nails, 
which  are  driven  through  the  shoe  and  horny  wall. 

At  present  there  are  hand-made  and  machine-made  horseshoe- 
nails.  Both  kinds  should  be  made  of  the  best  iron  (Swedish 
wrought  iron).  The  nails  must  be  slender,  wedge-shaped,  and 
twice  as  wide  as  they  are  thick.  Thickness  and  length  must  be 
in  proper  relation  to  each  other.  We  should  never  choose  a 
nail  which  is  longer  than  is  absolutely  necessary  to  hold  the 
shoe ;  six  to  nine  sizes  are  sufficient  for  all  purposes. 


110  HORSESHOEING. 

The  rough  nails,  before  being  used,  must  undergo  a  special 
shaping  to  prepare  them  to  pass  through  the  wall  easily  and  in 
the  desired  direction.  This  preparation  is  called  shaping  and 
bevelling.  In  doing  this  we  should  see  to  it  that  the  nails  are 
made  smooth  and  even,  but  are  not  hammered  harder  than  is 
absolutely  necessary,  because  the  lighter  one  can  hammer  the 
nails  the  better  they  will  be. 

Furthermore,  we  must  give  the  nail  that  form  which  will 
insure  its  passing  through  the  horn  straight  and  not  in  a  curve ; 
with  this  object  in  view,  the  nail  is  to  be  slightly  curved  so  that 
the  side  which  is  turned  towards  the  frog  in  driving  (insidej  will 
be  a  little  concave,  the  opposite  side  convex  (Figs.  96,  3,  and  97, 
5),  since  it  is  known  that  a  straight  nail  always  passes  through 
the  horn  in  a  curve,  and  not  only  does  not  long  remain  tight,  but 
is  quite  likely  to  press  upon  and  injure  the  soft  tissues  of  the  foot. 
(See,  also,  Nailing.) 

At  the  point  of  the  nail  the  bevel  is  to  be  so  placed  that  it  will 
form  a  short  one-sided  wedge  with  the  slanting  side  directed 
from  within  to  without  (Figs.  96,  3,  and  97).  A  short  bevel  is 
suitable  for  nails  that  are  to  be  driven  low,  while  a  long  bevel 
makes  it  possible  to  drive  them  high.  The  bercl  should  never  form 
a  hook  ;  it  must  always  be  straight,  should  be  sharp  but  not  thin,  and 
under  no  conditions  incomplete  (defective). 

Machine-made  nails,  smooth,  polished,  bevelled,  and  ready  for 
use,  are,  for  many  reasons,  to  be  preferred  to  hand-made  nails, 
though  the  latter  are  rather  tougher. 

Before  the  shoe  is  nailed  on  it  should  be  cooled  and  again 
carefully  examined  by  a  competent  shoer,  who  should  then  place 
it  upon  the  hoof,  where  it  should  be  critically  observed  to  see 
whether  it  really  fulfils  every  'requirement  of  a  properly-fitting 
shoe.  Afterwards,  the  least  fault  or  defect  must  be  remedied, 
and  then  the,  work  of  naUing  it  begins.  By  nailing,  the  shoe  is 
firmly  and  durably  fastened  to  tlie  hoof,  in  doing  which  the 
horn  of  the  wall  is  spared  so  far  as  possible,  the  elasticity  of 
the  hoof  borne  always  in  mind,  and  wounding  of  the  pododerm 


HORSESHOEING. 


Ill 


entirely  avoided.  The  nails  must  in  all  cases  penetrate  the 
■white  line  and  pass  through  the  wall  in  such  a  straight  direction 
that  they  will  appear  neither  too  high  nor  too  low  upon  its  outer 
surface.     In  the  first  case  there  is  considerable  danger  of  prick- 


FiG.  97. 


Fig.  96. 


Hand-made  horseshoe-nails,  natural  size, 
for  fullered  shoes  (1,  not  bevelled). 


Machine-made  "Reich's"  horseshoe- 
nails,  from  Bergedorf  near  Hamburg,  Ger- 
many ;  by  reason  of  their  low  cap  they 
are  suitable  for  either  stami)ed  or  fullered 
shoes. 


ing  or  close-nailing,  and  in  the  latter  the  nail-holes  will  tear  out 
easily  when  the  nails  are  being  clinched. 

In  driving  a  nail,  it  should  be  held  in  the  fingers  as  long  as 
possible  in  the  direction  in  which  it  is  desired  that  it  shall  pass 
through  the  horn.  A  nail  should  be  driven  cautiously,  with 
attention  to  its  sinking  and  sound,  and  yet  with  enough  force  so 
that  at  each  stroke  it  will  penetrate  from  one-fifth  to  one-fourth 
of  an  inch.  The  power  required  at  each  stroke  will  depend 
upon  the  hardness  of  the  horn  and  the  size  of  the  nail.  Fear- 
less driving  and  timorous  tapping  should  not  be  allowed. 


112  HORSESHOEING. 

Nails,  which  at  a  depth  of  five-eighths  of  an  inch  are  still 
going  soft,  or  which  bend  and  give  a  dull  sound,  or  cause  pain, 
should  be  immediately  withdrawn. 

According  to  the  size  of  the  horse  and  his  hoofs  the  nails 
should  be  driven  from  five-eighths  to  an  inch  and  five- eighths 
high,  and  as  even  as  possible.  As  soon  as  a  nail  is  driven  its 
j)oint  should  be  immediately  bent  dow-n  towards  the  shoe  in 
order  to  prevent  injuries.  The  heads  of  all  the  nails  should 
then  be  gone  over  with  a  hammer  and  driven  dow^n  solidly  into 
the  nail-holes,  the  hoof  being  meanwhile  supported  in  the  left 
hand.  Pincers  are  then  held  under  the  bent  nails  and  they  are 
more  sharply  bent  by  light  blows  upon  the  nail-heads.  The 
points  of  the  nails  are  now  nipped  off  near  the  hoof,  the  horn 
which  has  been  thrown  out  just  below  the  clinches  by  bending 
the  nails  down  is  removed  with  rasp  or  gouge,  and  the  ends  of 
the  nails  bent  down  still  more,  but  not  quite  flush  with  the 
wall.  This  operation  is  called  "  clinching."  A  clinching-block 
or  a  pair  of  ordinary  blacksmith's  pincers  is  then  placed  under 
the  end  of  the  nail,  now  called  a  clinch,  and  by  light  blows  (in 
doing  this  the  nail  must  not  bend  within  the  wall)  upon  the  head 
the  clinch  is  turned  closer  to  the  surface  of  the  wall  ;  finally, 
with  the  front  edge  of  the  nail-hammer  the  clinch  is  hammered 
down  flush  with  the  wall.  On  the  inner  half  of  the  wall  the 
clinches  should  not  be  felt  on  stroking  the  w-all  with  the  fingers. 
The  small  amount  of  horn  that  projects  beyond  the  shoe  around 
the  toe  may  be  carefully  rasped  away  in  the  direction  in  which 
the  wall  slants,  but  never  higher  than  the  clinches  ;  finally,  the 
sharp  lower  edge  of  the  wall  is  to  be  removed  by  carrying  the 
corner  of  the  rasp  around  between  the  shoe  and  the  horn. 

A  clinch  is  sufficiently  long  when  it  equals  the  width  of  the 
nail  at  that  point. 

It  is  of  advantage  to  use  a  shoeing-buck  or  foot-stool  in  clinch- 
ing the  nails  on  the  front  hoofs.  The  hind  hoofs  may  be  clinched 
in  the  hands.  Then  the  horse  should  be  led  out  and  again 
moved  in  order  to  see  whether  or  not  the  new  shoeing  has 


HORSESHOEING. 


113 


actually  accomplished  what  was   desired.      Finally,  the  entire 
hoof  should  be  given  a  thin  layer  of  hoof-salve. 

IS..  Horseshoes  more  or  less  deficient  in  the  Desirable  Quali- 
ties described  on  pages  95—102. 

Machine   Shoes. 

1.  Machine  Shoes  of  Wrougld  Iron. — They  are  half-finished 
and  finished.  Though  machine  shoes  with  few  exceptions  show 
no  distinction  between  front  and  hind,  or  left  and  right,  with  cor- 
rect punching  for  these  different  feet,  but  usually  present  one 
form  in  different  sizes,  yet,  unfortunately,  they  are  in  high  favor 
with  German  horseshoers,  because  they  may  be  used  for  both 
summer  and  winter  and  for  bar  shoes. 

For  these  reasons  we  cannot  approve  of  machine  shoes. 


Fig.  98. 


Fig.  99. 


Fig.  100. 


Bar  rope  shoe  with  bar 
bent  forward. 


The  same  with  bar  bent 
backward. 


The  same  with  beak- 
formed  bar. 


2.  Finished  Cast  Shoes. — They  are  of  two  kinds, — ordinary 
cast  shoes  and  cast  shoes  with  rope  buffer.  Ordinary  cast  shoes 
of  correct  form  and  proper  punching  designed  by  Grossbauer,  of 
Vienna,  are  sold  by  Hannes'  Sons,  of  that  city. 

Mojie  Shoes. — These  shoes  have  a  groove  on  the  ground  sur- 
face,  in  which  rests    a  tarred  rope,  which  greatly  diminishes 


114  HORSESHOEING. 

slipping  on  smooth  pavement.  For  this  reason  alone  they  are 
extensively  used  in  tlie  large  cities  of  Germany.  Since  the  open 
rope  shoe,  when  half  worn  out,  will  warp,  the  bar  rope  shoe  is 
more  satisfactory  and  more  extensively  used  (Figs.  98,  99,  100). 
Before  fitting  tlie  shoe  the  rope  must  be  removed.  After  the 
nails  are  driven  it  is  laid  in  the  groove  and  hammered  into  place. 
Rope  shoes  can  seldom  be  fitted  properly  to  hoofs  other  than 
those  which  are  healthy  and  of  regular  shape. 


CHAPTER    II. 


SHOEING  HORSES  THAT   FORGE  AND   INTERFERE. 

A.  Forging. 

Forging  is  that  defect  of  the  horse's  gait  by  reason  of  which,  at 
a  trot,  he  strikes  the  ends  of  the  branches  or  the  under  surface 
of  the  front  shoe  with  the  toe  of  the  hind  shoe  or  hoof. 

Forging  is  unpleasant  to  hear  and  dangerous  to  the  horse.  It 
is  liable  to  wound  the  heels  of  the  forefeet,  damages  the  toes  and 
the  coronet  of  the  hind  hoofs,  and  often  pulls  off  the  front  shoes. 
Causes. — 1.  Faulty  conformation ;  for  example,  horses  that 
stand  considerably  higher  at  the  croup  than  at  the  withers ;  horses 
with  long  legs  and  short  bodies ;  horses  that "  stand  under"  in  front 

and  behind.    2.  Using  horses  on 
^^^-  ^^^-  heavy  ground,  unskilful  driving ; 

riding  without  holding  a  horse  to 
his  work  by  feeling  his  mouth 
and  pressing  the  knees  against 

Fig.  102. 


Right  front  shoe  with  concave  ground- 
surface  ("convex  iron")  to  prevent 
"  forging." 


Right  hind  shoe  with  lateral  toe-clips  to  pre- 
vent "  clicking"  and  the  various  injuries  due  to 
forging. 


his  sides.  3.  Fatigue  frequently  leads  to  forging,  even  in  horses 
that  are  well  built  and  properly  shod.  It  may  also  occur  in  the 
act  of  vaulting  over  an  obstacle.     4.  Poor  shoeing,  especially  too 

115 


116  HORSESHOEING. 

long  toes  upon  the  front  and  hind  hoofs,  and  too  long  front 
shoes. 

The  means  employed  to  correct  forging  consist  in  applying 
front  shoes  which  are  no  longer  and  no  wider  than  the  hoof. 
The  ends  of  the  branches  of  a  flat  shoe,  and  also  the  heel-calks, 
in  case  they  are  used,  should  be  bevelled  from  the  hoof  surface 
of  the  shoe  downward  and  forward  under  the  foot.  Such  short 
heel-calks,  bevelled  to  prevent  forging,  are  called  "  forging  calks." 
If  the  horse  forges  between  the  branches  and  on  the  lower  sur- 
face of  the  shoe,  concaving  this  surface  will  prove  advantageous. 
The  form  of  the  front  shoes  of  horses  that  forge  should  represent 
merely  a  prolongation  of  the  hoof.  The  hind  shoes  are  to  be 
shortened  at  the  toe,  and  the  lower  edge  of  the  shoe  in  the 
region  of  the  toe  well  rounded ;  instead  of  a  toe-clip,  two  side- 
clips  are  to  be  drawn  up  and  the  shoe  so  fitted  that  at  least  three - 
fourths  of  the  thickness  of  the  Avail  of  the  toe,  with  the  edge  well 
rounded,  will  extend  forward  beyond  the  shoe 

B.  Interfering. 

A  horse  "  interferes"  when  a  hoof  in  motion  strikes  the  oppo- 
site supporting  leg.  Interfering  is  apt  to  produce  injuries,  either 
of  the  coronary  band  of  the  inner  half  of  the  foot  or  of  the  fet- 
lock-joint, or  (in  fore-limbs)  of  the  cannon,  even  as  high  up  as 
the  knee.     Lameness  frequently  accompanies  such  injuries. 

The  causes  of  interfering  lie  either  in  the  shoeing  (of  the  foot 
that  strikes,  as  well  as  of  the  foot  which  is  struck),  in  the  posi- 
tion of  the  limbs,  or  in  the  use  of  the  animal.  Horses  that  have 
the  correct  standing  position  do  not  interfere  when  they  are 
properly  shod ;  base-wide  horses  interfere  sometimes ;  horses 
base-narrow  down  to  the  fetlock  and  toe -wide  below  that 
point  interfere  very  frequently.  Traces  or  reins  of  unequal 
length,  weariness,  and  shoeing  at  too  long  intervals  favor  inter- 
fering. 

In  attempting  to  lessen  or  remove  interfering,  the  horse  must 
be  most  carefully  examined  with  respect  to  the  position  of  his 


HORSESHOEING. 


117 


limbs,  his  gait,  and  his  shoeing,  in  tlie  manner  described  on 
pages  80  to  82. 

If  the  cause  is  fomid  to  be  the  twisted  position  of  a  shoe,  too 
wdde  hoofs,  raised  clinclies,  etc.,  nothing  need  be  done  further 
than  to  correct  the  shoeing ;  but  if  a  faulty  position  of  the  limbs 
is  the  cause,  we  must  ascertain  the  exact  part  of  the  hoof  that 
does  the  striking,  diminish  the  size  of  the  hoof  at  that  point,  reg- 
ulate the  entire  plantar  surface  of  the  hoof,  make  the  shoe  straight 
along  the  region  that  strikes, — that  is,  without  curve, — and  so 
fit  it  to  the  foot  that  one-third  of  the  thickness  of  the  wall  will 


Fig.  103. 


Fig.  104. 


Shoe  with  interfering  branch,  interfering 
shoe  (ground-surface). 


The  same  (hoof-surface). 


extend  beyond  the  shoe.  "Where  interfering  is  so  pronounced  as-- 
t.o  produce  serious  injuries,  we  use  a  shoe  with  no  nails  in  the 
inner  branch  ("  dropped-crease"  shoe)  (Figs.  105  and  106). 

The  so-called  interfering  sJioes  (Figs.  103  and  104)  are  worthy  of 
recommendation  only  for  hoofs  of  the  base-narrow  position.  The' 
interfering  branch,  whose  greater  thickness  raises  the  inner  wall, 
w^hich  is  often  too  low,  is  to  be  so  shaped  and  directed  that  the- 
hoof  will  project  somewhat  beyond  it.  Tliis  interfering  branch 
must  be  made  and  shaped  in  accordance  with  each  individual  case. 
The  holes  in  the  interfering  branch  should  be  punched  somewhat 


118 


HORSESHOEING. 


finer  (nearer  the  edge)  than  usual.  Interfering  shoes  in  which 
the  nail-holes,  with  the  exception  of  the  inner  toe  nail-hole,  are 
placed  in  the  outer  branch,  are  called  "  dropped-crease  interfering 
shoes'  (Fig.  105).  Such  shoes  are  not  recommended  for  hind 
hoofs  that  are  decidedly  toe-wide  (toe-cutters);  in  such  cases 
better  results  will  be  obtained  by  using  a  shoe,  either  with  or 
without  heel-calks,  whose  inner  branch  is  straight  and  without 
nails  along  the  striking  region,  and  is  fitted  wide  (full)  at  the 


Fig.  105. 


Fig.  106. 


Left  interfering  shoe  without  nail-holes 
in  inner  branch  ("dropped-crease"  shoe) : 
a,  side-clip. 


Right  hind  shoe  for  toe-cutters.  The 
dotted  lines  indicate  the  distance  that  the 
wall  projects  beyond  the  shoe :  a,  side-clip. 


quarter.  The  inner  heel-calk  should  be  higher  than  the  outer, 
and  the  end  of  the  outer  branch  should  be  as  base-narrow  as  it 
can  be  made  (fitted  close) (Fig.  106).  In  order  to  prevent  shifting 
of  an  interfering  shoe,  a  side-clip  should  be  drawn  up  on  the 
outer  branch  (a). 

There  is  no  manner  of  shoeing  that  will  prevent  interfering 
which  is  caused  by  improper  harnessing,  crooked  hitching,  or 
weariness.  The  simpler  and  the  lighter  the  shoes  the  less  will 
horses  interfere. 


CHAPTER   III. 


WINTER   SHOEING, 

All  shoes  whose  ground-surface  is  provided  with  contrivances 
to  prevent  slipping  upon  snow  and  ice  are  called  winter  shoes. 

These  various  contrivances  are  produced  by  several  processes 
called  "  methods  of  sharpening."  All  methods  may  be  gathered 
hito  two  groups, — namely,  practical  sharp-shoeing  and  impixicti- 
cal.     Only  the  first  will  be  considered. 

The    durability   of   sharpened   shoes    depends  partly   upon 
whether  they  are  made  of  steel  or  iron,  and  partly  upon  the 
nature  of  the  ground  in  winter.     If  the  ground  is 
continuously  covered  with  a  thick  layer  of  snow,        Fig.  iot. 
whatever  method  of  sharpening  is  followed,  the 
shoes  stay  sharp ;  if,  however,  the  winter  is  open, 
changeable,  with   more   bare   ice  than  snow,  no 
method  of  sharpening,  whatever  it  may  be,  will 
last  long ;  the  shoes  will  not  stay  sharp. 

For  these  reasons  no  method  of  sharpening 
which  fulfils  all  conditions  satisfactorily  has  yet 
been  discovered. 

The  simplest  and  at  the  same  time  the  least 
durable  method  of  sharpening  is :  1.  That  by 
means  of  ice-nails  or  frost-nails  (Fig.  1U7).  One  or 
two  nails  are  drawn  from  each  branch  of  the  shoe 
and  replaced  with  ice-nails. 

2.    Sharp    Toe-    and   Heel-Calks. — The    outer 
calk  is  split  and  a  small  steel  wedge  welded  in.     It  is  then  laid 
upon  tlie  edge  of  the  anvil,  indented  and  sharpened  from  within 
to  without  in  such  a  manner  that  the  calk  shall  be  thin  from  the 
branch  to  the  ground,  and  the  outer  surface  shall  be  in  the  same 

119 


An  ice-nail,  I'rost- 
nail. 


120 


HORSESHOEING. 


Fig.  108. 


Fig.  109. 


Outer  and  inner  heel-calks,  sharp- 
ened. 


Fig.  110. 


vertical  plane  as  the  outer  edge.     If  a  calk  is  narro^v  from  its 
base  to  its  end,  and  at  the  same  time  without  flaw,  it  does  not 

need  a  sharp  cutting  edge.  The  inner 
calk  should  never  be  sharpened  ex- 
cept the  ground  be  very  slippery. 
The  cutting  edge  of  this  inner  calk 
stands  at  right  angles  to  the  length 
of  the  branch,  and  its  outer  corner 
should  then  be  rounded  to  prevent 
its  injuring  the  opposite  foot  (Fig. 
109). 

For  horses  used  for  heavy  draught 
purposes  a  toe-calk  is  welded  to  the  shoe  and  sharpened.  For 
this  purpose  we  use  only  steel  (toe-steel),  which 
is  easily  welded  to  the  shoe  and  remains  firm. 
Toe-calks  and  steeled  heel-calks  are  tempered, 
in  order,  as  much  as  possible,  to  lengthen  their 
period  of  durability.  This  method  of  sharpening 
is  the  oldest  and  most  wide-spread,  and  is  em- 
ployed on  the  shoes  of  all  horses  of  which  we 
require  more  than  light  service. 

Hoofs  are  easily  damaged  or  even  ruined  by 
frequently  repeated  sharpening  of  the  shoes,  be- 
cause every  time  this  is  done  the  shoes  must  bt 
removed  and  replaced. 

3.  Shoeing-  -with  Screw  Heel-Calks. — Any  or- 
dinary flat  shoe  not  too  thin  and  narrow  at  the 
ends  of  the  branches  can  be  changed  to  a  shoe 
with  screw  heel-calks  by  punching  holes  in  the 
ends  of  the  branches  and  cutting  a  thread  in 
them. 

The  screw  heel-calk  holes  are  made  either  by 
punching  or  boring.     The  punching  is  done  by 
means  of  an  almost  cylindrical  hammer-punch,  afterwards  finish- 
ing the  holes  by  driving  through  them  a  round  punch  which  tapers 


Ciround-snrfiice  of 
the  end  ol  a  branch 
of  shoe,  showing 
(a)  hole  and  coun- 
ter-sinking- for  a 
screw-calk  (one- 
half  natural  size). 


HORSESHOEING. 


121 


Fig.  112. 


from  the  middle  towards  both  ends.  On  the  groimd-surface  of 
the  shoe  the  hole  is  moderately  coimter-suiik  (Fig.  110,  a),  so 
that  after  the  thread  has  been  cut  and  the  calk  screwed  into  place 
the  shoulder  of  the  latter  will  rest  on  the  counter-sinking. 

At  present  nearly  all  screw-calks  are  made  by  machinery, 
either  of  iron  or  toe-steel.  The  former  is 
too  soft  and  therefore  not  sufficiently  dura- 
ble; the  latter,  however,  is  quite  durable 
when  the  calk  is  properly  hardened  (tem- 
pered) by  heating  to  a  cherry-red,  sticking 
the  head  of  the  calk  as  far  as  the  tap  into  a 
bed  of  moist  sand,  and  allowing  it  to  slowly 
cool. 

Fig.  111. 


V 


Sharp  screw-calks  ^Wth  Whitworth  thread 
(haLf-inch,  natural  size). 


Whitwnrth  tap  (half-inch, 
half  natural  size). 


The  chief  requirements  of  a  good  screw-calk  are,  further,  a 
clean,  deep,  but  not  too  coarse  thread,  and  but  one  size  of  thread 
and  tap  for  all  calLs,  so  that  every  calk  will  fit  in  every  shoe. 
A  calk  whose  tap  measures  one-half  inch  (12.7  milhmetres) 
(Whitworth )  in  diameter  is  sufficient  for  the  heaviest  shoes.  The 
tap  which  is  used  to  cut  the  thread  in  tlie  holes  for  the  screw- 
calks  must  be  about  y|-  of  an  inch  thicker  than  the  head  of  the 
calk,     in  the  German  army  the  calks  used  have  a  tap  fifteen. 


122 


HORSESHOEING. 


Fig.  113. 


Fig.  114. 


Fig   115. 


thirty-seconds  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  coachman  should 
be  given  four  calks  (sharp  and  blunt)  for  each  shoe,  and  a  small 
screw-calk  key  for  placing  and  removing  them.  Screw  toe-calks 
are  also  used,  yet  they  require  special  security  to  prevent  their 
becoming  loose.  Experimentation  with  the  screw  toe-calks, 
though  not  yet  entirely  satisfactory,  cannot  be  said  to  have  ended. 
The  advantages  of  shoes  provided  with  good  screw  heel-calks 
are  so  manifold  that  they  deserve  marked  preference  over  shoes 

sharpened  by  the  ordinary 
methods.  The  common  ob- 
jections urged  against  screw- 
calks, — namely,  that  they 
loosen  and  are  lost,  or  break 
off,  are  not  worthy  of  serious 
consideration,  since  these 
evils  are  merely  the  result  of 
unskilful  workmanship  and 
poor  material.  Shoes  with 
screw  heel-calks  are  the  best 
shoes  for  winter,  especiaUy  for 
horses  that  have  to  work  hard 
and  continuously. 
Balling  with  snow  is  prevented  by  using  shoes  narrow  in  the 
web  and  concave  upon  the  ground-surface  (convex  iron),  and 
thoroughly  oiling  the  sole  and  frog.  Sole-pads  of  felt,  leather,  or 
straw  serve  the  same  purpose.  Balling  with  snow  is  best  pre- 
vented by  a  rubber  sole-and-frog  pad,  or  by  a  "  stopping"  of  a 
patent  hoof  cement  known  in  Germany  as  "huflederkitt." 

4.  Shoeing-  with  Peg--Calks. — The  calks  are  merely  stuck 
into  the  calk-holes,  hence  their  name.  Round  and  square  peg- 
calks  are  used,  but  the  former  are  better  than  the  latter. 


Sharp  peg-  Blunt  peg- 
calk  :  a,  the  calk :  a,  the 
tap;  b,  the  tap;  b,  the 
head.  head. 


Lower  part  of 
the  reamer. 


The  inventor  of  round  peg-calks  is  Judson,  an  American.  The  shoes 
differ  in  no  respect  from  the  ordinary  flat  shoes.  It  is  necessary  that  the 
tap  of  the  calk  have  a  moderately  conical  form,  and  exactly  fit  into  the  calk- 
hole  of  the  shoe.     The  taper  of  the  calk-tap  is  correct  if  for  every  two-fifths 


HORSESHOEING.  123 

lo  fifteen  thirty-seconds  of  an  inch  in  length  it  increases  or  diminishes  one- 
iwenty-fifth  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 

Althougli  the  calk-holes  may  be  punched  in  a  hot  shoe,  yet  boring  and 
Teaming  them  is  much  better,  because  by  this  method  a  more  perfect  fit  can 
be  secured.  For  this  purpose  we  require  a  drill  (a  spiral  drill  is  the  best) 
whose  diameter  is  exactly  the  same  as  that  of  the  small  end  of  the  calk-tap 
{Figs.  113,  c,  and  114,  c).  After  the  shoe  has  been  fitted  to  the  hoof,  the 
provisional  holes  are  drilled  and  afterwards  reamed  out  from  the  ground- 
surface  of  the  shoe  with  the  reamer  shown  in  Fig.  115.  Since  the  tap  of  the 
reamer  corresponds  exactly  in  size  to  the  tap  of  the  calk,  it  is  evident  that 
the  latter  must  exactly  fit  and  be  tight.  The  wire  edge  that  is  raised  around 
the  hole  is  removed  with  a  file,  and  the  edge  then  smoothed  by  introducing 
the  reamer  a  second  time.  The  calks  are  made  of  rolled  round  steel,  which 
has  the  thickness  of  the  tap-end  of  the  calk.  P'or  this  purpose  we  require 
a  calk-mould  or  matrix,  in  which  one  or  more  holes  have  been  finished  with 
the  reamer.  A  piece  of  rod  steel  is  heated  at  the  end  for  a  distance  nearly 
twice  the  lengtti  of  the  calk,  is  swaged,  thrust  into  the  matrix,  then  broken 
off,  and  backset.  This  will  give  a  blunt  peg-calk.  If  a  sharp  calk  is  desired, 
the  upper  part  of  the  head  of  the  calk  is  sharpened  in  the  ordinary  manner, 
although  this  is  accomplished  most  easily  by  using  a  pair  of  tongs  with  short 
jaws  that  are  hollowed  upon  the  inside  for  seizing  the  tap  of  the  calk. 

Before  the  shoes  are  nailed  on,  the  normal  i)unch  should  be  oiled  and 
driven  into  the  calk-holes,  and  the  calks  passed  into  the  holes  to  see  that 
they  fit  perfectly. 

The  calks  are  driven  into  place  after  the  shoes  are  nailed  to  the  hoofs. 
A  light  blow  is  sufficient  to  fasten  a  calk,  yet  a  necessary  precaution  is  first 
to  remove  every  trace  of  oil  from  the  calks  and  calk-holes.  The  first  calk 
driven  into  place  must  be  held  with  the  hand  while  the  second  is  being 
driven,  otherwise  it  will  either  spring  from  the  calk-hole  or  be  loosened  so 
that  it  will  soon  afterwards  be  lost. 

To  remove  such  a  calk  we  strike  its  head  from  different  sides  with  a  ham- 
mer, stone,  or  other  hard  object  until  it  becomes  loose,  when  a  rather  hard 
blow  upon  the  shoe  causes  it  to  spring  out.  Calks  which  have  worn  down 
are  seized  by  a  pair  of  sharp  nippers  and  loosened  by  blows  upon  the  shoe. 
Since  a  calk  which  is  firm  soon  rusts  and  is  then  very  difficult  to  remove,  it 
is  recommended  that  all  calks  be  removed  every  night. 

The  advantages  of  peg-calks  over  screw-calks  are :  1.  They  do  not 
break  off.  2.  They  are  easier  to  make  and  simpler  to  use.  3.  They  are 
cheaper. 

Disadvantages. — 1.  Peg-calks  are  sometimes  lost,  even  when  properly 
made  and  most   carefully  introduced.      This  evil  happens  much  less  fre- 


124 


HORSESHOEING. 


quently  when  the  calks  are  put  iu  by  the  maker  (horseshoer)  than  when 
they  are  stuck  in  by  the  coachman,  attendant,  rider,  or  other  person.  When 
calks  are  lost  on  the  way  from  the  shop,  it  is  usually  due  to  some  fault  in 
the  calk-holes  or  in  the  calks,  although  when  the  feet  are  balled  with  snow 
the  calks  are  easily  lost,  because  they  do  not  then  touch  the  ground. 

2.  The  removal  of  the  calks  often  involves  many  difficulties,  since  they 
are  apt  to  rust  into  place  if  not  removed  daily,  and  when  worn  down  so  far 
that  they  cannot  be  grasped  with  the  pincers  are  almost  impossible  to  re- 
move. By  hammering  upon  the  calks  and  shoe  many  horses  are  rendered 
not  only  restive,  but  sensitive  in  the-  feet. 

3.  If  horses  are  used  without  the  calks,  a  wire-edge  forms  around  the  hole 
on  the  bottom  of  the  shoe,  which  interferes  with  the  placing  of  the  calk  and 
lessens  its  security. 


The  hollow  peg--calk  (Fig.  116),  made  by  Branscheid  &  Phil- 
ippi,  of  Remscheid,  has  considerable  merit.  It  holds  exceedingly 
well,  and  is  very  durable.  It  is  furnished  in  three  sizes, — Nos. 
12,  13,  and  14, — of  twenty-seven,  thirty- 
one,  and  thirty-four  millimetres  length, 
and  twelve,  thirteen,  and  fourteen  milli- 
metres diameter  at  the  end  of  the  tap. 

Fig.  117. 


Hollow -spring  peg-calk, 
No.  12,  of  Branscheid  &  Phil- 
ippi,  of  Remscheid. 


puller. 


A  punch  is  furnished  which,  when  driven  up  to  its  head  in 
the  holes  of  the  heated  shoe,  insures  a  proper  width  and  shape 
of  the  hole  and  an  accurately  fitting  calk. 

The  calks  may  be  removed  by  an  extractor  (Fig.  117)  having 
at  one  end  a  thread  which  is  screwed  into  a  corresponding  thread 
on  the  inside  of  the  hollow  calk,  when  by  a  few  hammer  blow^s 
on  the  shoe  the  calk  loosens.     To  prevent  the  calk  becoming 


HORSESHOEING.  125 

choked  with  dirt,  a  piece  of  cork  is  thrust  into  the  hollow.  It 
may  be  easily  removed  by  means  of  the  corkscrew  at  the  other 
end  of  the  extractor. 

5.  Shoeing  -with  Peg  Toe-Calks. — These  are  a  recent  inno- 
vation of  considerable  worth,  especially  for  heavy  draiig-ht  in 
hilly  country.  They  render  better  service  on  hind  than  on  front 
shoes. 

Peg  toe-calks  with  a  single  tap  are  simpler  and  preferable  to 
those  with  two  taps.  Every  known  contrivance  to  prevent  the 
occasional  loss  of  the  peg  toe-calk  is  impractical. 

The  shoe  for  a  peg  toe-calk  should  be  of  good  tough  material 
and  without  a  flaw.  The  toe  of  the  shoe  should  be  about  one- 
twelfth  to  one-tenth  of  an  inch  (two  to  two  and  a  half  milli- 
metres) thicker  than  the  branches. 

The  hole  for  the  peg  toe-calk,  whatsoever  its  shape  may  be, 
must  be  smooth  and  uniform,  Avith  clean,  true  corners.  Semi- 
circular holes  should  present  the  convex  side  towards  the  toe. 

Before  punching,  draw  up  the  toe-clip.  A  punch-plate  with  a 
good-sized  hole,  and  a  tap  which  will  lit  into  the  sijuare  hole  in 


Fig.  118. 


d^c:^  OO 


Cross-section  of  differunt  forms  of  peg  toe-calk  taps. 

the  anvil  will  facilitate  the  work.  The  punch-plate  when  in 
position  should  be  Hush  with  the  front  edge  of  the  anvil.  Place 
the  toe  of  the  shoe,  hoof  surface  upward,  over  the  hole  of  the 
punch-plate,  and  drive  a  hole  with  a  punch-hammer  which  is 
perceptibly  thinner  than  the  model  punch.  Now  turn  the  shoe 
over,  punch  back  from  the  ground  surface,  and  then  file  away 
the  wire  edge  which  the  punch  has  raised  on  the  ground  surface. 
Next,  take  a  hand-punch,  the  end  of  which  should  just  enter 
the  hole,  punch  through  from  the  ground  surface,  and  correct 
any  bulging  by  dressing  lightly  over  the  horn  of  the  anvil.     Fi- 


126 


HORSESHOEING. 


nally,  use  the  model  punch  to  give  the  hole  the  exact  size  and 
smoothness. 

Should  the  hole  in  the  toe  of  the  shoe  enlarge  in  time,  as 
sometimes  occurs,  then  backset  when  necessary  on  removing  the 
shoe.  Backsetting  is  easiest  with  the  half-round  hole,  because 
the  curved  side,  being  turned  forward,  runs  approximately  paral- 
lel to  the  outer  border  of  the  toe  of  the  shoe. 


Fig.  119. 


Cbisel  toe-calk.  (Doring.)  No.  1  from  the 
firm  of  Branscheid  &  Philippi,  of  Rem- 
scheid. 


Fig.  120. 


Shovel  toe-calk. 


Fig.  121. 


Fig.  122. 


Peg  toe-calk  shoeing  after  Fjsher-Renker,       Peg-calk  (shovel-calk)  after  Kunze-Klotzsche- 
^of  Dresden.  Konigswald,  of  Dresden. 


A  good  serviceable  peg  toe-calk  must  possess  the  following 
characteristics : 

1.  The  tap  must  be  of  such  shape  as  not  to  turn  ;  therefore, 
not  round. 

2.  The  tap  must  be  cone-shapod,  and  diminish  in  diameter 
about  one-twenty-hfth  of  an  inch  (one  millimetre)  for  each  one- 


HORSESHOEING.  127 

third  of  an  inch  (eight  mihimetres)  of  its  length  from  base  to 
apex  (one-twenty-fourth  to  every  five-sixteenths  of  an  inch  will 
answer).  If  the  tap  has  less  taper  it  will  enlarge  the  hole  in 
the  shoe  till  the  head  of  the  calk  comes  into  contact  with  the 
shoe,  when  the  calk  will  loosen  and  drop  out. 

3.  The  tap  must  be  full-formed  and  smooth. 

4.  It  must  fit  air-tight  in  the  toe,  and  a  single  hammer-blow 
should  be  sufficient  to  fix  it  securely. 

5.  The  head  of  the  toe-calk  must  not  rest  on  the  shoe  ;  a 
space  of  one-twelfth  of  an  inch  should  intervene. 

While  a  shoer  of  average  mechanical  ability  can  make  a  fault- 
less peg  toe-calk,  it  is  not  profitable  to  do  so  while  good  machine- 
made  calks  are  to  be  had  very  cheap. 

The  best  forms  in  use  are  the  quadrangular  heads,  with  oval, 
half-round  (Figs.  119  and  120),  and  with  two  taps  (Figs.  121 
and  122). 

In  the  Royal  Saxon  Shoeing-School  in  Dresden  the  peg  toe- 
calks  with  half-round  tap  and  with  two  round  taps  are  in  use. 
To  make  good  peg  toe-calk  shoes  and  fit  the  calks  properly  re- 
quires more  than  ordinary  kno-wledg-e  and  skill.  Poor  work 
does  much  harm.  Therefore,  work  carefully  and  get  well  paid 
for  it. 

6.  Removable  Heel-Calks  that  do  not  require  Sharpening. 
— The  undcmable  fact  that  all  chisel- shaped  or  pyramid  shaj)ed 
sharp  calks  become  dull  in  time,  and  must  then  either  be  sharp- 
ened or  replaced  by  new  calks,  renders  shoeing  not  only  costly, 
but  injurious  to  the  hoofs  and  annoying  to  the  owner.  This 
drawback  is  most  pronounced  in  large  cities,  where  the  snow 
never  lies  long  upon  the  streets,  and  the  horse  just  sharp-shod  is 
soon  obliged  to  travel  upon  bare  pavements.  Attempts  have  been 
made  to  lessen  this  annoyance  by  the  use  of  calks  that  do  not 
require  sharpening,  and  yet  which  will  prevent  slipping  even  after 
they  have  been  used  for  a  long  time  upon  bare  pavements.  It 
cannot  be  denied  that  such  calks  have  considerable  value,  and, 
except  when  the  ground  is  covered  with  ice,  many  of  these  calks 


128 


HORSESHOEING. 


render  excellent  service.     Just  as  the  ordinary  sharp  calks  are 
satisfactory  and  very  durable  outside  of  the  large  cities,  so  now 


Fig.  123. 


Fig.  124. 


Screw-calk  with  H-formed  cross- 
section  (patented  by  N 


Screw-calk  with   -^-formed  cross-sec- 
tion (patented  by  Giick). 


for  the  first  time  a  few  of  these  recently  invented  sharp  calks 
seem  to  be  worthy  of  recommendation  for  city  use.  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  best : 

1.  Screw-calks   and    peg-calks   with    H-shaped   cross-section 
(patented  by  Neuss)  (Fig.  123). 

2.  Screw-calks  with  -(--shaped  cross-section.    Inventor  :  Giick, 
of  Wesel  (Fig.  124). 

3.  Screw-  and  peg-calks  with  T-shaped  cross-section.      (Pflug.) 

4.  Screw-  and  peg-calks  with  S-shaped  cross-section.     (Fiikenwirth.) 

5.  Angle-calks,  of  Branscheid  &  Philippi,  of  Remscheid  (Fig. 
125). 

6.  Screw-  and  peg-calks  with  rubber  foot-pad.     C.  Goetze  & 
Co.,  Berlin  S.,  Alte  Jacobstrasse,  No.  79. 

7.  Screw-calks  with  A  star-shaped  cross-section  (Fig.  126). 

8.  Hollow  wedge-calks   of   Arnstein  &  Martin,  Berlin,  War- 
schauerplatz  (Fig.  127). 

9.  Perforated  screw-calks  of  A.  Lungwitz,  of  Dresden  (Fig. 
128). 

10.  Springing  calks  of  Sickert,  of  Dresden  ;  and  many  more. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  the  grip  that  these  calks  take  upon  the 

ground  and   their   durability   depend   upon  the    diameter   and 


HORSESHOEING. 


129 


the  arrangement  of  their  surfaces  of  friction.     From  all  experi- 
ments made  thus  far  it  is  shown  that  those  calks  which  have 


Fig.  125. 


Fig.  120. 


Fig.  127. 


Fig.  128. 


Corner  talk (.Winkfl-         Star  calk  ol  Gotz         Hollow  calk  of  Am-       Perforated  calk  ol 
stollen)  of  Branscheid  &  Co.  stein  &  Martia  A.  Lungwitz. 

&  Philippi. 

Fig.  129. 


Universal  screw-calk  key  with  tap. 
Fig.  130. 


Felber's  hand-vice  to  secure  the  hoof  from  twisting  while  changing  the  screw-calks. 

narrow  and  comparatively  few  surfaces  of  friction  are  the  least 
durable. 

To  introduce  and  remove  the  calks  we  use  a  calk  key  or 
wrench.  For  the  shop,  the  ordinary  fork  key  (Fig.  129),  the 
jaws  of  which  are  tempered,  is  recommended.     It  fits  all  calks. 

9 


CHAPTER    IV 

HOOF  NURTURE. 

Hoof  nurture  comprises  all  those  measures  which  are  em- 
ployed to  keep  hoofs  healthy,  elastic,  and  serviceable. 

A.  Care  of  Unshod  Hoofs. 

The  care  of  the  hoofs  of  colts  is  of  special  importance.  Abun- 
dant exercise  upon  dry  ground  which  is  not  too  stony  is  most 
beneficial.  Such  exercise  will  cause  the  hoofs  to  wear  gradually, 
and  it  will  only  be  necessary  from  time  to  time  to  observe  whether 
the  wear  is  taking  place  uniformly,  and  if  not,  to  correct  the  un- 
even wear  with  tlie  rasp. 

If  colts  are  reared  in  the  stable,  the  horn  continuing  to  grow 
down  does  not  undergo  sufficient  wear,  and  changes  in  form  of 
the  hoof  gradually  occur.  The  wall  becomes  too  long  and  bends 
or  sometimes  separates  from  the  sole  and  keraphyllous  layer. 
Weak  quarters  bend  (curl)  inward  and  encroach  upon  the  space 
occupied  by  the  frog  (contracted  feet  of  colts).  The  toe  becomes 
too  long,  and  this  gives  rise  to  too  steep  a  position  of  the  pastern 
and  causes  an  insecure  and  diffident  gait ;  therefore  the  hoofs 
must  be  shortened  from  time  to  time.  The  incurved  quarters 
should  be  removed  with  the  hoof-knife,  and  the  outer  edge  of 
the  plantar  border  of  the  wall  well  rounded  with  the  rasp.  In 
a  hoof  that  is  becoming  awry,  restoring  to  the  wall  its  proper 
level  with  relation  to  the  position  of  the  limb  will  not  only  be 
invaluable  in  ultimately  producing  a  good  hoof,  but  will  improve 
the  faulty  ])osition  of  the  limb.  In  exceptional  cases,  where  the 
plantar  border  of  some  section  of  the  wall  gives  evidence  of  too 
rapid  wear,  the  application  of  a  tip  or  of  a  half-shoe  may  be 
130 


HORSESHOEING.  131 

of  benefit.  Furthermore,  we  should  attempt  to  secure  greater 
cleanhness  by  frequently  and  thoroughly  washing  the  hoofs  and 
bedding  with  plenty  of  good  straw. 

Too  early  shoeing  of  young  horses  is  very  injurious  ;  it  hinders 
the  development  of  the  hoofs,  and,  furthermore,  young  liorses 
when  shod  are  frequently  seriously  overworked  and  prematurely 
ruined.  Moderate  work  in  the  fields  does  not  injure  young 
horses,  but  for  such  service  they  do  not  require  shoes. 

The  unshod  hoofs  of  older  horses  should  be  periodically 
rounded  with  a  rasp  and  the  length  of  the  walls  regulated  when, 
by  reason  of  a  lack  of  exercise,  proper  wear  has  not  taken  place. 

B.  Care  of  Shod  Hoofs. 

Shod  hoofs  are  exposed  to  many  more  injuries  than  are  un- 
shod hoofs,  because  shoeing  itself,  although  absolutely  necessary 
to  render  horses  continuously  serviceable  upon  hard  streets,  is 
injurious  to  the  hoof,  since  it  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  prevents 
the  physiological  movements  of  the  different  parts  of  the  foot, 
interferes  with  the  circulation  of  the  blood  in  the  foot,  slows  the 
growth  of  the  horn,  and  brings  about  a  gradual  shrinking  of  the 
entire  hoof. 

In  addition,  there  are  the  injurious  consequences  of  stabula- 
tion.  These  are  prevention  of  free  movement,  undeanliness  due 
to  bad  floors  and  filthy  bedding, — as,  for  example,  peat  moss  and 
soiled  straw, — and  dryness. 

Contjnual  standing  always  contributes  to  contraction  of  the 
hoofs,  and  this  evil  is  greatly  favored  by  dryness,  which  more 
particularly  affects  the  front  hoofs.  The  hind  hoofs  receive  suf- 
ficient moisture  from  the  animal's  manure.  Poor  floors,  partic- 
ularly those  that  are  uneven,  tire  the  limbs.  Accumulation  of 
manure  and  the  use  of  stationary  sole-pads  induce  thrush  of  the 
frog. 

The  object  of  hoof  nurture  is  to  lessen  or  entirely  remove  all 
these  injurious  consequences  of  shoeing  and  stabulation.  It 
comprises,  therefore,  not  only  the  proper  shortening  of  the  hoofs 


132  HORSESHOEING. 

every  five  to  six  weeks,  but  careful  attention  to  cleanliness  and 
moisture.  Both  are  insured  by  dry  straw  and  daily  pickins,'-  out 
and  washing  the  hoofs.  Sucli  measures  Avill  prevent  thrush  in  the 
hind  feet.  If  front  hoofs  are  washed  once  a  day,  sufficient  moist- 
ure will  penetrate  the  horn  to  give  it  that  degree  of  suppleness 
(elasticity)  which  is  possessed  by  an  unshod  hoof,  and  which 
contributes  to  a  proper  expansion  of  the  hoof  when  the  body- 
weight  is  placed  upon  it.  In  order  to  prevent  a  Jioof  from  again 
drying  out^  the  entire  hoof  should  receive  a  thorough  application 
of  an  oil  or  ointment  (hoof-salve).  The  object  of  greasing  the 
horn  is  to  prevent  evaporation  of  the  moisture  that  has  pene- 
trated the  horn.  Specially  compounded  hoof-salves  are  not 
necessary.  Melted  horse-grease,  pork-fat,  or  any  other  fat  that 
is  not  rancid  is  sufficient.     Cosmoline  is  an  excellent  hoof-salve. 

Abundant  but  not  excessive  exercise  is  more  necessary  than 
anything  else  to  the  preservation  of  the  health  of  the  hoof.  It 
aids  the  circulation  of  blood  within  the  foot,  and,  therefore,  the 
growth  of  the  horn.  Horses  which  perform  hard,  regular  work 
have,  as  a  rule,  better  lioofs  than  those  which  stand  the  greater 
part  of  the  time  in  the  stable.  Poulticing  hoofs  with  clay,  bran, 
linseed  meal,  sawdust,  or  standing  them  in  water  is  unnecessary 
if  they  have  had  proper  care,  but  will  sometimes  be  of  benefit 
when  the  hoofs  have  been  neglected,  and  especiahy  so  for  front 
hoofs.  The  latter  are  more  exposed  to  drying  influences,  and 
the  shoes  prevent  the  moistening  process  by  keeping  the  hoofs 
partially  or  completely  removed  from  contact  with  the  earth. 
Oiling  alone  is  not  sufficient  to  soften  horn,  but  must  always  be 
preceded  by  permeation  of  the  horn  with  water.  Oiling-  with- 
out first  cleansing  the  hoof  is  useless,  because  this  soon  pro- 
duces a  greasy  crust  underneath  w^hich  the  horn  is  crisp  and 
brittle. 

The  surest  sign  of  cleanliness  of  a  hoof  is  the  appearance  of 
the  natural  color  of  the  horn,  the  latter  appearing  translucent 
even  after  the  hoof-ointment  has  been  applied  ;  therefore,  black- 
ened hoof-ointments  should  not  be  used.     When  hoofs  are  ex- 


HORSESHOEING.  133 

posed  to  too  much  moisture  (muddy  roads,  melting  snow,  etc.) 
an  addition  of  wax  or  common  yellow  rosin  to  the  hoof-oint- 
ment is  recommended  to  prevent  too  great  softening  of  the  horn. 
No  hoof -ointment  has  any  direct  injluence  upon  the  grotdh  of  the 
horn. 

Inasmuch  as  it  is  a  fact  that  the  very  best  shoeing  injures  the 
hoof,  it  is  advisable  to  allow  horses  to  go  barefoot  whenever  it  is 
possible.  This  applies  especially  to  horses  that  from  any  cause 
are  thrown  out  of  service,  presupposing,  of  course,  that  the 
nature  of  the  hoofs  will  allow  them  to  go  barefoot. 


PART   III. 


CHAPTER  I. 

GENERAL     REMARKS   CONCERNING    THE   SHOEING  OF   DEFECTIVE 
HOOFS  AND   LAME   HORSES. 

The  boundary  between  health  and  disease  of  the  hoof  is  diffi- 
cult to  determine,  especially  when  we  have  to  deal  with  minor 
defects  of  structure  or  shape  of  the  hoof.  Ordinarily,  we  first 
consider  a  hoof  diseased  when  it  causes  lameness.  However, 
we  know  that  diseases  of  the  hoof  may  exist  without  lame- 
ness. Therefore,  a  hoof  should  be  regarded  as  diseased  or 
defective  when  the  nature  of  the  horn,  the  form  of  the  hoof,  or 
the  parts  enclosed  by  it,  deviate  from  what  we  consider  as  nor- 
mal or  healthy  (see  page  72),  whether  the  service  of  the  animal 
is  influenced  by  it  or  not. 

Front  hoofs  become  diseased  or  defective  more  readily  than 
hind  hoofs,  because  they  bear  greater  weight,  have  more  slanting 
walls,  and  are  more  exposed  to  drying  influences.  All  nor- 
mally wry  hoofs  and  acute-angled  hoofs  become  more  readily 
diseased  than  regular  and  obtuse-angled  or  stumpy  hoofs. 

The  indications  of  the  various  diseases  of  the  hoof  are  dis- 
cussed in  the  following  chapters.  We  shall  in  this  chapter 
undertake  only  a  brief  general  discussion  of  inflammaiion  of  the 
pododcrm.  This  inflammation,  known  as  pododermatitis,  al- 
ways manifests  itself  by  Iam<^n<'-'^-^  f^'x^i  under  closer  examination 
of  the  foot,  hy  inayased  icannth,  pain,  and  stronger  jjnlmtion  of  the 
digital  arteries.  The  pain  produces  either  a  timid,  shortened  (sore) 
134 


HORSESHOEING.  135 

gait,  or  well-marked  lameness,  especially  upon  hard  ground.  In- 
creased sensitiveness  of  the  pododerm  is  detected  by  compres- 
sion of  the  hoof  with  the  pincers  (hoof-testers),  or  with  greater 
certainty  by  lightly  tapping  the  hoof.  The  increased  warmth  of 
a  part  or  of  the  entire  hoof  is  detected  by  feeling  with  the  hand 
Intense  pain  and  greatly  increased  warmth,  with  a  moderate, 
diffuse  swelling  of  the  soft  parts  between  the  hoof  and  fetlock- 
joint,  indicate  suppuration  within  the  hoof. 

The  examination  of  horses  lame  in  the  feet  must  always  be 
cautious  and  searching,  and  should  begin  with  the  moving  and 
judging  of  the  horse  as  already  described  on  page  80.  The  faults 
detected  in  the  hoof  or  in  the  shoeing,  the  pain  and  increased 
warmth  of  the  hoof,  will  not  leave  us  in  doubt  as  to  whether  the 
animal  is  lame  in  the  hoof  or  not.  However,  should  there  be  a 
doubt,  we  must  carefully  examine  all  the  joints  and  tendons  of 
the  foot  and,  if  necessary,  of  the  limb  above,  and  observe  the 
animal's  manner  of  travelling  at  a  walk  and  at  a  trot,  on  soft  and 
on  hard  ground,  m  a  straight  line  and  in  a  circle. 

The  removal  of  the  shoe  should  be  performed  with  greatest 
caution.  Undei  certam  conditions  the  second  shoe  should  not 
be  removed  until  the  first  has  been  replaced.  The  same  caution 
must  be  observed  in  paring  the  hoof,  which  is  to  be  regarded  as 
a  part  of  the  examination  of  the  hoof.  The  paring  of  a  hoof  for 
this  purpose  often  differs  somewhat  from  the  preparation  of  a 
sound  hoof  for  the  shoe,  and  while  it  is  necessary  because  it 
frequently  furnishes  the  first  trustworthy  indication  of  the 
trouble,  it  must  be  done  with  circumspection  and  intelligence. 

The  causes  ot  chseases  of  the  hoof  are  very  numerous,  for 
many  external  influences  act  injuriously  upon  the  hoof.  In 
addition  to  too  great  dryness,  want  of  care  (neglected  shoeing), 
and  premature,  unreasonable,  cruel  use  of  the  horse,  should  be 
mentioned  particularly  injudicious  dressing  of  the  hoof  and  direct 
and  indirect  faults  in  the  shoeing.  The  pododerm,  shut  in  between] 
the  hard  os  pedis  and  the  stiff,  unyielding  horn  capsule,  is  fre- 
quently exposed  to  bruising  and  other  injuries,  from  which  arise j 


136 


HORSESHOEING. 


most  of  the  defects  of  the  hoof  itself.     All  these  things   lead, 
under  certain  conditions,  to  lameness. 

Treatment. — First  of  all,  the  discovered  causes  should  be  re- 
moved, or,  if  this  is  not  possible,  as  is  frequently  the  case,  they 
shouki  be  ameliorated.  Very  often  the  lameness  may  be  removed 
by  proper  shoemg,  a  change  in  the  animal's  work,  and  better 
care  of  the  hoof.  W^hen  there  is  intense  inflammation  within 
the  foot,  the  shoe  should  be  removed  for  a  few  days.  When  the 
inflammation  is  moderate  and  confined  to  a  small  area,  it  is 
usually  sufficient  to  alter  the  shoeing  by  regulating  unnatural 
relations  of  height  in  the  different  parts  of  the  wall,  and  by  re- 
moving all  superfluous  horn  from  the  wall  and  sole  (to  a  less 
degree  from  the  frog),  partly  for  the  purpose  of  rendering  the 
horn  capsule  more  yielding,  and  partly  to  make  the  poultices 
which  are  used  more  effective.  The  shoe  is  then  to  be  so  applied 
that  the  diseased  region  will  be  relieved  of  the  body-weight,  and 
will  remain  free  from  all  pressure  from  the  shoe.  This  can  be 
done    partly    by    making   the    underlying   branch  of  the    shoe 

somewhat  toider  and  longer  than 
the  other,  and  partly  by  cutting 
down  the  bearing-edge  of  the 
wall  where  this  is  possible  with- 
out weakening  it  too  much,  other- 
wise by  concaving  or  beating 
down  the  upper  surface  of  the 
shoe.  By  reason  of  the  fact  that 
the  posterior  half  of  the  hoof  is 
the  seat  of  most  diseases  of  the 
hoof,  it  is  to  be  recommended  that 
the  nail-holes  in  shoes  used  in 
these  diseases  be  placed  as  far  as 
possible  in  the  anterior  half  of  the 
shoe,  and  in  some  special  cases 
distributed  evenly  around  the  toe.  AmcMig  shoes  suitable  for  dis- 
eased hoofs  the  bar-shoe  (L'ig.  131)  holds  the  first  place,  because 


Fig.  131. 


Bar-shoe  for  right  foot. 


HORSESHOEING.  137 

it  renders  superfluous  many  other  shoes  specially  designed  for 
various  diseases  of  the  hoof.  It  is  made  like  an  ordinary  flat 
shoe,  except  that  it  recfuires  a  somewhat  longer  piece  of  iron ; 
the  ends  of  the  branches  are  bent  inward  over  a  dull  corner  of 
the  anvil,  bevelled,  laid  one  over  the  other,  and  welded  together 
to  form  the  bar.  The  width  and  thickness  of  the  bar  should  be 
the  same  as  of  the  rest  of  the  shoe,  and  its  frog-surface  should 
be  slightly  concave. 

The  bav-shoe  is  valuable,  because  it  protects  from  pressure  dis- 
eased sections  of  the  wall  which  have  been  laid  free,  allows  part 
of  the  body-weight  to  be  borne  by  the  frog,  and  restores  normal 
activity  to  tlie  disturbed  physiological  movements  of  the  foot. 
By  using  it  Ave  can  either  gain  a  more  extensive  bearing  surface 
for  the  hoof,  or  can  make  it  easier  for  the  surface  that  bears  the 
weight  to  do  the  work.  If  on  account  of  weakness  of  the  bearing- 
surface  of  the  hoof,  or  from  any  other  cause,  we  wish  to  dis- 
tribute the  body-weight  over  the  entire  plantar  surface  of  the 
foot  with  the  exception  of  the  painful  region,  we  add  a  leather 
sole  to  the  bar  shoe. 

In  this  case  it  is  necessary  to  place  holes  in  the  ends  of  the 
branches  of  the  shoe,  so  that  we  may  rivet  the  leather  firmly  to 
the  shoe  with  small  nails.  The  shoe  should  be  made  somewhat 
wider  than  the  hoof,  and  the  clips  somewhat  higher  than  usual. 
After  fitting  the  shoe  the  grooves  for  the  clips  are  cut  in  the 
leather,  the  latter  is  riveted  to  the  shoe,  and  all  leather  projecting 
beyond  the  outer  edge  of  the  shoe  is  trimmed  away.  The  lacunae 
of  the  frog  and  other  concavities  of  the  sole  are  then  thickly 
smeared  with  wood-tar  and  afterwards  filled  up  with  oakum  to 
such  a  degree  that  the  packing  will  bear  some  of  the  body-weight 
when  the  shoe  and  leather  sole  are  in  position.  This  packing  is 
of  great  importance,  because  it  prevents  the  filtering  in  from  be- 
hind of  sand  and  slime,  preserves  the  toughness  and  pliability  of 
the  horn,  breaks  shock,  and  produces  a  gradual  expansion  of  the 
posterior  half  of  the  hoof.  Before  nailing  the  shoe  to  the  foot 
the  leather  sole  should  be  soaked  in  water. 


] 


138  HORSESHOEING. 

Classification  of  Diseases  of  the  Hoof. 

INFLAMMATIONS    OF    THE    PODODERM. 

1,  Nailing  (pricking  and  close  nailing) ;  2,  street-nail  ;  3,  calk- 
wounds;  4,  corns  (bruised  sole)  ;  5,  bruised  heels;  6,  Laminitis 
(founder) ;  7,  keraphyllocele  (tumor  of  horny  leaves). 

DEFECTS  OF  THE  HORN  CAPSULE  AND  LATERAL  CARTILAGES. 

(a)  Changes  of  form  :  1,  flat  hoof  and  full  hoof  (dropped  sole) ; 
2,  upright  hoof  (stumpy  or  stubby  hoof) ;  3,  contracted  hoof;  4, 
wry  hoof;  5,  crooked  hoof;  6,  ossification  of  the  lateral  carti- 
lage (side-bone). 

(6)  Disturbances  of  continuity  of  the  horn  capsule  :  1,  cracks; 
2,  clefts ;  3,  loose  wall ;  4,  hollow  wall ;  5,  thrush. 


CHAPTER  II. 

INFLAMMATIONS   OF  THE   PODODERM    (PODODERMATITIS) 

1.  Nailing. 

Wounds  of  the  velvety  tissue  of  the  sole  or  of  the  podophyl- 
lous  tissue  of  the  wail,  caused  by  nails  which  have  been  driven 
into  the  hoof  for  the  purpose  of  fastening  the  shoe,  are  usually 
termed  "  nailing." 

We  distinguish  direct  and  indirect  nailing  ;  the  former  is  noticed 
immediately,  the  latter  later. 

In  direct  nailing  the  nail  passes  directly  into  the  pododerm 
(velvety  tissue  of  the  sole,  podophyllous  tissue) ;  the  wound  pro- 
duced may  vary  from  a  simple  puncture  of  the  pododerm  to 
chipping  of  the  border  of  the  os  pedis,  and  is  always  accompa- 
nied by  bleeding-,  even  though  it  may  not  always  be  noticed. 

In  indirect  nailing  the  nail  does  not  pass  entirely  through  the 
horn  capsule,  but  very  close  to  the  sensitive  tissues,  and  crowds 
the  soft  horn  inward  against  them.  This  inward  bulging  presses 
upon  the  pododerm  and  causes  inflammation  and  lameness,  which 
may  not  manifest  themselves  for  several  days. 

Symptoms. — The  first  symptom  of  direct  nailing  is  instant  pain, 
indicated  by  flinching  or  a  jerking  of  the  limb,  showing  that  the 
nail  has  taken  a  wrong  course,  and  then  a  more  or  less  profuse 
hemorrhage.  Usually  the  blood  flows  from  the  nail-hole,  or  the 
nail  when  withdrawn  may  merely  show  a  blood-stain  at  its  point; 
however,  internal  bleeding  may  occur  without  any  external  man- 
ifestations. The  symptoms  of  indirect  nailing  are  entirely  dif- 
ferent. In  this  case  pain  does  not  arise  immediately,  but  later, 
sometimes  as  soon  as  the  horse  attempts  to  bear  his  weight  upon 
the  shod  foot.  In  the  latter  case,  on  holding  up  the  opposite  foot 
the   animal  sways  backw'ard  and  throws  his  Aveight  upon  the 

139 


140 


HORSESHOEING. 


holder,  or  becomes  restless.  As  a  rule,  the  consiMpioiiccs  of 
[ndirect  nailing  are  first  manifested  after  two  or  throe  days,  in- 
frequently from  the  eighth  to  the  fourteenth  day.  as  inflammation 
within  the  hoof  and  lameness,  at  which  time  a  careful  examina- 
tion will  usually  reveal  increased  warmth  of  the  hoof,  pain  upon 
pressure  with  the  hoof-testers  and  on  tapping  the  hoof  lightly, 
some  swelHng  of  the  entire  foot,  mcreased  pulsation  of  the  digi- 
tal arteries,  and  unwillingness  of  the  animal  to  place  all  or  per- 
haps any  of  its  weight  upon  the  foot. 

Suspicion  of  nailing  should  be  entertained  if  the  shoeing  be 
recent,  the  hoof  appear  too  small  in  relation  lo  the  body-weight, 
the  walls  have  been  thinned  by  rasping  or  have  been  broken 
away,  or  if  the  nails  have  been  driven  too  high  or  very  irregu- 
larly. 


Fig.  133. 


Fig.  132. 


Cross-section  of  a  shod  hoof,  the  hoof-skin  or 
pododerm  being  in  red  :  a,  indirect  nailing 
where  backsetting  has  been  overdone  and  h.is 
bent  the  nail ;  6,  nail  properly  placed  and  of 
correct  shape. 


<r..-ar 


Front  hoof  deficient  in  horn  :  a,  right 
position  of  the  nail-holes  in  the  white 
line ;  b,  faulty  position  inside  of  the 
white  line ;  c,  wall  v/eakened  by  exces- 
sive rasping. 


Causes. — The  most  common  causes  are  mistakes  in  shoeing. 
In  the  majority  of  cases  the  cause  is  a  disregard  of  the  rule  that 
the  nails  should  penetrate  the  white  line  (see  pages  104  and  111, 
heavy  type).  1,  Using  badly-piiiiched  shoes;  2,  excessive  paring 
and  shortening  of  the  hoof;  3,  weakening  of  the  lower  border  of 


HORSESHOEING.  141 

the  wall  by  excessive  rasping  away  of  the  outside  (Fig.  133,  e) ;  4, 
mistakes  in  fitting  the  shoe,  especially  applying  shoes  that  are  too 
narrow,  letting  the  toe-clips  too  deep  into  the  horn,  by  which  the 
nail-holes  near  the  toe,  instead  of  falling  upon  the  white  line,  are 
carried  back  upon  the  edge  of  the  sole,  or  using  shoes  in  which  the 
nail-holes  are  too  wide  or  improperly  directed ;  5,  using  nails 
that  are  split,  incomplete,  badly  formed  and  bevelled,  and  too 
large  ;  6,  starting  nails  too  deep  or  with  the  bevel  on  the  outside, 
or  drawing  them  too  tight.  As  occasional  causes  may  be  men- 
tioned :  7,  old  nail- stubs  in  the  horn  ;  8,  walls  that  are  very  thin 
or  broken  away ;  9,  a  soft,  crumbling  wall,  which  alters  the  sound 
and  feeling  of  the  nail  as  it  is  driven,  and  makes  it  difficult  to 
judge  of  its  course  ;  10,  restlessness  of  the  animal  while  being 
shod. 

Examination. — Press  with  the  hoof- testers  upon  the  sole  and 
chnches  ;  tap  lightly  upon  the  chnches.  If  these  acts  cause  pain, 
there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  nail  is  responsible  for  the  dam- 
age. Remove  the  shoe  by  drawing  each  nail  separately  and 
carefully.  Examine  the  nails  with  reference  to  their  direction 
and  size,  as  well  as  to  staining  with  blood,  blood-serum,  or  pus. 
Immediately  after  removing  the  shoe,  look  for  the  point  of  en- 
trance of  each  nail  into  the  hoof,  and  if  a  nail-hole  be  found 
upon  the  edge  of  the  sole  (Fig.  133,  6)  instead  of  in  the  white 
line,  it  is  highly  probable  that  the  nail  which  passed  in  at  that 
place  pressed  upon  the  sensitive  tissues  of  the  foot.  Every  nail- 
hole  should  then  be  searched  by  passing  a  clean  new  nail  into  it 
and  pressing  its  point  towards  the  soft  tissues  at  various  depths  ; 
any  indication  of  pain  caused  by  this  act  is  pretty  sure  proof  of 
nailing.  It  stands  to  reason  that  the  character  of  the  nail-holes 
in  the  shoe  should  be  closely  examined. 

Treatment. — When  the  foot  has  sustained  an  ordinary  simple 
prick  with  a  nail,  the  latter  should  be  left  out  and  the  hole  well 
filled  with  wax.  As  a  rule,  no  serious  results  follow.  In  severe 
direct  nailing  the  entire  shoeing  should  be  most  carefully  exam- 
ined, and  only  after  everything  is  found  to  be  right,  and  the  shoe 


142  HORSESHOEING. 

fits  in  such  a  manner  that  the  nails  can  only  penetrate  the  wall 
from  the  wliite  line,  can  it  be  regarded  as  correct.  The  offend- 
ing nail-hole  is  then  to  be  closed  with  wax.  According  to  the 
intensity  of  the  wound  we  may  expect  a  more  or  less  pronounced 
inflammation  of  the  pododerm,  and  this  is  to  be  combated  by 
restiiTg  the  animal  and  cooling  the  foot. 

If  the  wound  is  clean  and  recent,  enlarging  the  opening  in  the 
horn  by  cutting  and  boring  can  have  no  reasonable  object ;  the 
wound  by  such  an  act  will  not  be  made  smaller,  but  larger. 

Frecjuently,  however,  the  wound  is  not  observed  or  suspected 
until  the  pain  has  become  very  intense  (indirect  nailing,  nail- 
prossure) ;  in  such  cases  the  offending  nail  when  withdrawn  is 
apt  to  be  covered  with  pus  or  a  dark,  thin,  ill-smelling  liquid. 
In  such  a  case  the  liciuid,  whatever  its  nature  may  be,  must  be 
given  free  escape.  In  order  to  accomphsh  this  it  is  entirely  suffi- 
cient to  cut  away  a  section  of  the  wall  from  the  nail-hole  out- 
ward, not  greater  than  the  width  of  the  little  finger,  and  then  to 
assist  in  the  discharge  of  the  pus  by  placing  the  foot  in  a  warm 
bath  ;  it  is  entirely  wrong,  in  fact,  reprehensible,  to  remove  all 
horn  of  the  wall  and  sole  which  has  been  loosened  from  the 
soft  parts  by  the  suppurative  process.  After  the  escape  of  the 
inflammatory  fluids,  the  wall  and  sole  will  form  the  best-fitting 
and  most  suitable  protective  dressing  for  the  diseased  region 
until  it  has  secreted  new  horn.  If,  after  removal  of  the  nail  and 
pus,  the  pain  does  not  diminish,  warm  disinfecting  baths  of  one 
to  two  parts  of  creolin,  or  the  same  amount  of  lysol,  to  one 
hundred  parts  of  water  at  a  temperature  of  about  90°  F.  will  be 
of  especial  benefit ;  they  will  not  only  soften  the  horn,  but  by  their 
moisture  and  warmth  will  directly  diminish  the  pain  and  have  a 
healing  influence  upon  the  suppurating  surfaces.  The  warm 
baths  must  actually  he  warm  and  be  kept  warm.  Antiseptic  solu- 
tions at  room  temperature  are  much  less  efficient. 

If  the  pain  has  not  been  very  pronounced,  or  if  it  has  been 
greatly  alleviated  by  two  or  three  warm  baths,  then,  as  a  rule,  it 
is  sufficient  to  put  a  few  drops  of  the  tincture  of  myrrh  upon 


HORSESHOEING.  143 

the  inflamed  surface,  and  to  close  the  opening  with  oakum  (car- 
bohzed  oakum  or  carbohzed  cotton  is  better). 

The  horse  which  has  been  nailed  will  be  again  perfectly  ser- 
viceable after  a  few  days  if  shod  with  a  shoe  which  does  not 
press  upon  the  inflamed  region.  The  shoe  does  not  p7'ess  when  it 
rests  only  upon  the  bearing-edge  of  the  u-all,  when  the  white  line  and 
the  edge  of  the  sole  are  entirely  free  of  the  shoe,  and  no  nails  are 
driven  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  wound. 

Even  though,  as  we  have  seen,  nailing  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  is  not 
particularly  serious  to  the  horse  and  owner,  yet  we  should  never  forget  that 
tetanus  (lockjaw),  a  disease  which  is  nearly  always  fatal  to  horses,  may  follow. 
Nailing,  however  insignificant  it  may  seem,  may  under  conditions  lead  to 
the  death  of  the  horse. 

2.  Street-Nail. 

The  condition  caused  by  accidental  injury  of  the  sensitive 
structures  covered  by  the  horny  sole,  such  as  the  velvety  tissue 
of  the  sole  and  frog,  plantar  cushion,  perforans  tendon,  navicu- 
lar bone,  OS  pedis,  or  the  pedal  articulation,  by  sharp  objects, 
especially  nails,  is  called  "penetrating  street- nail,"  or  simply 
"  street-nail."  The  resistance  of  the  ground  to  the  weight  of  the 
body  drives  these  penetrating  objects  through  the  sole  or  frog 
into  the  foot. 

Hind  hoofs  are  more  often  affected  than  fore-hoofs.  A  favor- 
ite point  of  entrance  is  the  lateral  lacuna  of  the  frog.  Street-nail 
is  favored  by  excessive  thinning  of  the  sole  and  frog. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  are,  as  a  rule,  sudden  pain  fol- 
lowed by  lameness.  The  first  assistance  is  usually  sought  in  the 
shoeing-shop.  If  the  cause  of  lameness  be  found  to  be  a  pene- 
trating nail,  piece  of  glass,  or  other  pointed  foreign  body,  it  must 
be  carefuUy  drawn  oid,  in  doing  which  we  should  remove  the  entire 
object,  not  allowing  pieces  to  break  off  and  remain  in  the  wound. 
Since  it  is  always  important  to  know  in  what  direction  and  how 
deep  the  foreign  body  has  penetrated,  in  order  to  be  able  to  es- 
timate the  gravity  of  the  wound,  it  is  advisable  in  all  cases  to 


144 


HORSESHOEING. 


preserve  the  penetrating  body,  that  it  may  be  shown  to  ttie  vet- 
erinarian, in  case  his  services  are  recfuired. 

In  slight  injuries  to  the  velvety  tissue  of  the  sole  or  frog, 
accompanied  with  moderate  pain,  it  is  of  no  benefit  to  enlarge 
the  opening,  though  the  horn  of  the  sole  or  frog  should  be 
thinned  for  the  space  of  an  inch  or  more  around  the  wound, 
followed   by   cooling  applications.     Deep,   penetrating  wounds 

Fig.  134. 


Shoil  himl  foot,  with  s^plint  dressing. 


accompanied  Avith  intense  pain  require  the  attention  of  a  veter- 
inarian. 

Often  some,  form  of  dressing  is  necessary,  and  this  is  usually 
held  in  place  by  a  special  shoe.  For  slight  injuries,  such  a  sjijlint- 
dresshig  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  134  is  sufficient.  Whether  such  a 
dressing  be  applied  to  the  front  or  hind  feet,  the  shoe  should  be 
well  concaved  upon  the  hoof-surface.  The  dressing  is  held  in 
place  by  thin  splints  of  tough  wood,  which  are  firmly  wedged 
between  the  shoe  and  hoof. 


HORSESHOEING. 


145 


In  those  rare  cases  in  which  it  is  necessary  to  maintain  con- 
tinuous pressure  upon  the  seat  of  the  wound,  and  to  protect  the 
entire  plantar  surface  of  the  hoof,  a  covered  shoe  (Figs.  135  and 


Fig.  135. 


Shoe  ■nith  cover-plate  for  street-nail  treatment ;  suitable  where  pressure-dressing  is  de- 
sired :  a,  hole  in  the  bottom  of  the  toe-calk  for  reception  of  spur,  b,  of  cover-plate ;  c,  holes 
for  reception  of  screw-calks,  d,  which  fasten  the  cover-plate  to  the  shoe. 


136)  is  recommended.  This  shoe  is  provided  with  a  sheet-iron 
cover,  having  at  the  toe  a  spur  which  fits  into  a  corresponding 
hole  in  the  toe  of  the  shoe,  and  being  fastened  at  the  heels  by 
means  of  screw  heel-calks. 


3.  Calk  Wounds  of  the  Coronet. 

All  tread-wounds  of  the  coronet,  caused  by  the  calks  of  the 
opposite  shoe,  by  the  shoes  of  other  horses,  or  by  forging,  are 
known  as  calk  wounds,  or  simply  as  "  calking."  The  injury  itself 
is  either  a  bruise  or  a  bruised  wound,  followed  by  inflammation 
of  the  coronary  cushion  and  an  interruption  in  the  formation 
of  horn  at  that  point.     It  occurs   most  often  in  winter  from 

10 


146  HORSESHOEING. 

sharp  calks,  especially  on  tlie  hind  feet.  The  common  seat  of 
the  injury  is  the  coronet  of  the  toe  and  the  inner  side  of  the 
foot. 

Tlie  inflammation  terminates  either  in  resolution — that  is, 
passes  gradually  aAvay,  leaving  the  tissues  apparently  normal — or 
in  suppuration.  The  perioplic  liorn-band,  wliicli  is  usually  loos- 
ened from  the  perioplic  band  by  the  injury,  does  not  again  unite. 
For  this  reason,  and  because  of  the  interruption  in  the  formation 
of  horn  at  the  seat  of  injury,  there  results  a  transverse  depres- 
sion or  cleft  in  the  wall. 

The  shoeing  has  to  deal  only  with  the  lameness  that  may  be 
present  as  a  result  of  the  calking.  The  section  of  the  wall  con- 
taining the  lesion  should  be  shortened,  so  that  it  will  not  press 
upon  the  shoe.  Serious  calk  wounds,  as  a  rule,  reauire  treat- 
ment by  a  veterinarian. 

4.  Corns  (Bruised  Sole). 

Tlie  expression  "  corns"  is  applied  to  nearly  all  bruises  of  the 
jpflMdoderra  of  the  posterior  half  of  the  foot,  with  the  exception  of 
the  frog,  which  are  apparent  to  the  eye  as  yellowish,  reddish,  or 
bluish-red  discolorations  of  the  horn  of  the  sole  and  white  line. 

The  surface  of  the  pododerm  (fleshy  leaves  and  villi)  is  chiefly 
involved,  and  almost  without  exception  there  is  rupture  of  small 
blood-vessels  and  an  outpouring  of  blood  between  the  pododerm 
and  the  horn.  The  blood  penetrates  the  horn-tubes  and  causes 
the  above-mentioned  staining.  By  subsecjuent  growth  of  horn 
tiiese  stained  patches  are  carried  downward,  and  are  finally 
uncovered  and  brought  to  sight  in  paring  the  hoof. 

The  seat  of  corns  is  either  on  the  fleshy  leaves  of  the  quarters, 
or  on  the  velvety  tissue  of  the  sole  in  the  angle  between  the  wall 
and  the  bar,  or  on  the  fleshy  leaves  of  the  bars.  Thus  we  dis- 
tinguish cprng  o/'J/<(3  wall,  sole,  and  bars. 

Corns  affect  chiefly  the  front  hoofs,  and  more  often  the  inner 
half  than  the  outer.     Unshod  feet  are  seldom  affected. 

According-  to  the  intensity  of  the  lesions  we  distinguish : 


HORSESHOEING.  147 

1.  Dry  Corns. — The  red-stained  horn  is  dry,  and  there  is 
seldom  lameness. 

2.  Suppuratiny  Corns. — They  are  the  result  of  intense  bruising 
followed  by  inflammation.  The  pus  is  either  thin  and  dark  gray- 
ish in^color,  denoting  a  superficial  inflammation  of  the  pododerm, 
or  yellowish  and  thick,  denoting  a  deep  inflammation  of  the 
pododerm.  In  the  latter  case  a  veterinarian  should  be  called. 
Lameness  is  usually  pronounced. 

3.  Chronic  Corns. — In  this  case  there  is  vivid  discoloration  of 
horn  in  all  possible  hues.  The  horn  is  either  soft,  moist,  and 
lardy,  or  crumbling,  cracked,  and  at  times  bloody.  The  inner 
surface  of  the  horn  capsule  has  lost  its  normal  character,  and  is 
covered  with  horny  swellings  or  nodules  (Fig.  137,  a).  Some- 
times the  wing  of  the  os  pedis  on  that  side  has  become  morbidly 
enlarged  and  loosened.     A  short, 

cautious  gait  alternates  with  well-  Fig.  137. 

marked  lameness ;  the  latter  ap- 
pears whenever  the  shoe  presses 
too  firmly  on  the  corn,  or  when 
the  hoof  becomes  too  dry. 

Tlie  causes,  aside  from  the  form 
and  cjuality  of  the  hoofs  and  the 
position  of  the  limbs,  lie  in  inju- 

■••    •             J           .             e  i\        1         c           1  Inner  aspect  of  a  iniartur  of   a   hoof, 

dlClOUS   dreSSmg  of  the   hoof  and  showing  changes  m  the  hom-leaves  due  to 

in  faulty  shoes.      Too  much  trim-  chronic  coms :  a,  homy  tumor  resulting 

„       .  ,             T    rt    1    1        p  from  the  disease. 

mmg  01  wide  and  flat  hoofs,  ex- 
cessive weakening  of  the  quarters,  sole,  bars,  and  frog  of  all 
other  hoofs,  Miiile  the  toe  is  usually  left  too  long,  are  the  usual 
causes.  Shortening  one  quarter  too  much  in  relation  to  the 
other,  so  that  the  foot  is  unbalanced  and  the  lower  side  over- 
loaded, is  a  frequent  cause.  Hoflowing  the  sole  and  bars  exces- 
sively and  unnecessary  thinning  of  the  branches  of  the  sole  in 
the  search  for  corns  are  also  causes. 

Among  faulty  shoes  we  may  mention  those  not  level  on  the 
hoof-surface,  trough-shaped,  too  short  in  the  branches,  shoes 


148  HORSESHOEING. 

which  do  not  completely  cover  the  bearing-surface  of  the  hoof, 
or  whose  bearing-surface  at  the  ends  of  the  branches  is  directed 
downward  and  inward  so  that  the  quarters  are  scjueezed  to- 
gether when  the  weight  is  put  on  the  foot.  Insufficient  con- 
caving of  the  shoe  is  often  an  exciting  cause  of  corns  in  flat  feet 
and  in  those  with  dropped  soles.  A  well-formed  shoe  which 
does  not  rest  firmly  upon  the  hoof,  or  which  has  been  shifted  as 
a  result  of  careless  nailing,  may  as  readily  cause  bruising  of  the 
c{uarters  as  neglected  shoeing.  The  latter  causes,  as  a  rule,  corns 
of  the  sole.  It  is  very  rarely  that  corns  are  caused  by  stones 
fastened  between  the  frog  and  branches  of  the  shoe  or  in  unshod 
hoofs  by  pebbles  becoming  wedged  in  the  white  line. 

Dryness  is  particularly  injurious  to  the  hoofs,  and  is  in  the 
highest  degree  favorable  to  the  production  of  corns.  It  renders 
the  hoof  stiff  and  inelastic,  and  first  manifests  itself  by  a  short, 
cautious  (sore)  gait  when  the  horse  is  first  put  to  work. 

Treatment. — First,  removal  of  the  causes,  by  restoring  the 
proper  form  to  the  hoof  through  shortening  a  toe  which  is  too 
long  (especially  apt  to  be  the  case  in  acute-angled  hoofs),  cutting 
down  cjuarters  which  are  too  high,  and  carefully  removing  all 
dead  horn  from  the  branches  of  the  sole,  especially  in  acute- 
angled  hoofs. 

Deeply  digging  out  a  small  area  of  blood-stained  horn  is  in- 
jurious. It  is  much  better  to  thin  the  horn  of  the  entire  branch 
of  the  sole  uniformly,  in  doing  which  we  should  avoid  wound- 
ing the  velvety  tissue  of  the  sole  or  drawing  blood. 

""fhe  proper  shoeing  is  tlie  bar-shoa,  except  when  both  carti- 
lages are  ossified.  The  pressure  should  not  be  taken  from  the 
quarters  unless  they  are  sore. 

When  there  is  a  suppurating  corn^  the  shoe  should  be  left  olT 
several  days.  A  chronic  corn  should  be  protected  continuously 
from  pressure  by  the  shoe.  This  is  accomplished  by  using  a 
bar-shoe  w'ith  leather  sole.  A  three-quarter  shoe  is  not  siijHcioit 
to  properly  pi^otect  a  hoof  affected  with  a  chronic  corn,  if  the  animal 
must  perform  exacting  labor  on  hard  roads. 


HORSESHOEING.  149 

The  care  of  the  hoof  consists  in  keeping  it  cool,  moderately 
moist,  and  pliant. 

5.  Inflammation  of  the  Heels. 

Inflammation  of  the  bulbs  of  the  plantar  cushion  (heels)  is 
usually  caused  by  such  external  influences  as  bruising.  It  occurs 
in  both  shod  and  unshod  feet.  The  symptoms  are :  increased 
warmth,  pain  and  swelling,  sometimes  infiltration  of  the  tissues 
with  blood,  accompanied  by  a  short,  cautious  gait,  or,  if  only  one 
foot  is  affected,  by  well-marked  lameness. 

The  most  frequent  causes  are :  going  barefoot  upon  hard 
(frozen),  uneven  ground ;  shoeing  hoofs  having  low  heels  with 
flat  shoes  that  are  too  short ;  sometimes  too  much  frog-pressure 
by  the  bar  of  a  bar- shoe  ;  forging  and  grabbing. 

The  treatment  first  incUcated  is  a  cooling  application  in  the 
form  of  an  ice-poultice,  or  a  soaking  in  cold  water.  Later, 
astringent  (drying)  applications  are  of  benefit,  especially  if  the 
perioplic  horn-ring  has  partially  loosened  from  the  bulbs  of  the 
heels ;  for  example,  a  weak  solution  in  water  of  sulphate  of 
copper  (1  to  20),  followed  by  the  application  of  a  shoe  with  heel- 
calks,  which  is  quite  long  in  the  branches  and  which  must  not 
press  upon  the  icall  of  the  quarters. 

v  6.  Laminitis  or  Founder. 

By  this  name  we  designate  a  peculiar  inflammation  of  the 
pododerm  at  the  toe.  It  arises  suddenly  in  well-nourished  and 
apparently  healthy  horses,  following  excessive  work  or  long- 
continued  rest  in  the  stable,  and  frequently  leads  to  a  decided 
change  of  form  of  the  hoof 

The  disease  is  always  accompanied  with  intense  pain.  It  most 
often  affects  both  front  feet,  more  rarely  all  four  feet,  or  only  one 
foot.  In  the  first  case  the  two  front  feet  are  planted  far  in  ad- 
vance of  the  body,  and  the  hind  feet  wefl  forward  under  the 
belly.     When  all  four  feet  are  affected,  travelling  is  exceedingly 


150 


HORSESHOEING. 


difficult,  often  impossible ;  in  this  case  there  is  nearly  always  a 
high  fever  over  the  entire  body. 

The  seat  of  the  disease  is  in  the  fleshy  leaves  about  the  toe, 
more  rarely  upon  the  side  walls  and  quarters.  Depending  upon 
the  intensity  of  the  inflammation,  the  fleshy  leaves  are  more  or 
less  loosened  from  the  horny  leaves,  as  a  result  of  w^hich  there 
is  a  change  of  position  of  the  os  pedis,  w-ith  a  simultaneous  sink- 
ing of  the  coronet  at  the  toe.  This  produces  a  change  of  form 
of  the  hoof.  The  cjuarters  become  higher.  Rings  form  upon 
the  wall,  and  their  course  is  quite  characteristic  of  the  disease. 


Flu.  138. 


Fir..  139. 


Exterior  of  a  foundered  foot. 


Vertical  median  section  of  a  foundered 
foot :  a,  sinuous  course  of  the  horn-tubes ; 
b,  cicatricial  horn ;  c,  point  of  os  p)edis. 


At  the  toe  these  rings  are  quite  close  to  one  another,  but  as  they 
pass  back  towards  the  quarters  they  gradually  separate  from  one 

another  and  recede  from  the  coronary  band  (Figs.  138,  140,  and 

141).     . 

The  wall  at  the  toe  is  sunken  in  just  under  the  coronet;  its 
lower  part,  on  the  contrary,  is  thrust  forward.  Later,  the  ichite 
line  becomes  pathologically  widened.  The  horn  of  the  white  line 
is  dry,  crumbling,  and  easily  broken  down,  so  that  a  break  in 
continuity  (crack)  is  apt  to  occur  between  the  wall  and  sole,  and 
lead  to  the  formation  of  a  hollow  ivall  Cseedy  toe").  Where  the 
inflammation  is  moderate  and  is  not  repeated,  healing  usually 


HORSESHOEING. 


151 


takes  place  and  the  horn  grows  down  regularly  and  in  normal 
direction  from  the  coronet.  However,  a  rather  brittle  condition 
of  the  horn  remains  permanentlj.     If,  on  the  contrary,  the  in- 


FiG.  140. 


Fig.  141. 


Foundered  foot  (ohrouic  laminitisj,  before 
dressing 


i<~oundered  foot,  dressed  and  shod.  The 
dotted  lines  indicate  its  fonn  before  being 
dressed, — i.e.,  as  shown  in  Fig  140. 


flammation  was  very  severe  or  repeated  several  times,  the  horny 
sole  becomes  flat  just  in  front  of  the  point  of  the  frog  as  a  result 
of  the  sinking  of  the  os  pedis,  or  it  may  even  drop  below  the  level 
of  the  wall  (full  hoof,  dropped  sole).  Indeed,  it  even  happens  at 
times  that  the  toe  of  the  os  pedis  perforates  the  horny  sole  just 
in  front  of  the  point  of  the  frog.  The  wall  at  the  toe,  which  was 
previously  but  little  altered  in  form,  is  now  thrust  prominently 
forward. 

The  inflammation  of  the  pododerm  may  under  certain  condi- 
tions and  by  skilful  veterinary  treatment  be  removed,  so  that 
the  characteristic  changes  of  form  and  ciuality  of  the  hoof  will 
not  occur.  But  if  this  is  not  accomplished,  as  is  often  the  case, 
the  disease  will  be  obstinate,  and  permanent  morbid  changes  of 
the  horn  capsule  take  place. 

A  horse  in  such  a  condition  can  be  used,  but  the  gait  will  be 
short  and  stiff.  The  hoofs  are  shuffled  forward  and  set  heels 
first  to  the  ground,  a  manner  of  travelling  that  rapidly  wears 
away  the  branches  of  the  shoe. 

In  dressing  a  foundered  hoof  the  outer  circumference  of  the 
sole  is  the  guide.  The  thick  projecting  wall  at  the  toe  may  be 
removed  with  the  rasp  without  injuring  the  foot.      The  sole 


152 


HORSESHOEING. 


Fig.  142. 


should  be  spared,  but  the  quarters  should  be  lowered  to  improve 
the  setting  of  the  foot  to  the  ground. 

The  choice  of  the  shoe  will 
depend  upon  theshape  and  na- 
ture of  the  sole.  If  this  is  still 
concave,  an  ordinary  shoe  may 
be  used.  If,  however,  the  sole 
is  flat  or  dropped,  it  must  be 
protected  by  an  open  shoe 
with  a  broad  web,  or  with  a 
bar-shoe  (Fig.  142),  which  is 
of  especial  value  when  the 
bearing-edge  of  the  wall  is 
weak  or  broken  away. 

As  long  as  there  is  pain  on 
pressure  about  the  toe  there 
should  be  no  toe-clip,  but  two 
side-clips.  The  wall  between 
these  clips  should  be  lowered 
a  tenth  to  an  eighth  of  an  inch  to  prevent  pressure  of  the  shoe 
upon  the  sensitive  tissues  of  the  toe  (Fig.  141).  The  nails  should 
be  placed  as  small  as  possible  and  well  back  towards  the  quarters. 
No  nail  should  be  driven  in  the  wall  at  the  toe  when  there 
is  separation  of  sole  and  wall  at  the  toe  (hollow  wall,  seedy- 
toe). 

The  shoes  of  horses  affected  with  founder  often  work  forward 
as  a  result  of  the  animals  travelling  upon  their  heels.  To  pre- 
vent this  evil,  clips  may  be  raised  at  the  ends  of  the  branches  of 
an  open  shoe,  or  one  clip  in  the  middle  of  the  bar,  in  case  a  bar- 
shoe  is  used  (Fig.  142). 


A  well-covered  (wide- webbed)  bar-shoe, 
with  two  lateral  toe-clips  and  an  end-clip,  for 
a  foundered  foot. 


7.  Keraphyllocele  (Horn  Tumor). 

A  keraphyllocele  is  a  more  or  less  sharply  bounded  horn  tumor  projecting 
from  the  inner  surface  of  the  wall. 

Its  occurrence  is   rare.     Its  favorite  seat  is  at  the  loe.     It  rarely  causes 


HORSESHOEING. 


153 


lameness.  It  can  only  be  diagnosed  with,  certainty  when  it  extends  down- 
ward to  the  lower  border  of  the  wall.  In  this  case  there  may  be  seen  a 
half-moon-shaped  thickening  of  the  white 
line  which  rounds  inward  upon  the  edge  of 
the  sole,  and  is  of  a  waxen  color.  Fre- 
quently the  horn  at  this  place  crumbles 
away,  leaving  a  more  or  less  dark-colored 
cavity  from  which  there  sometimes  escapes 
a  small  quantity  of  dark-grayish  pus. 

Causes. — Chronic  inflammation  of  the  po- 
dophyllous  tissue,  resulting  from  compression 
or  bruising.  Keraphyllocele  frequently  fol- 
lows a  complete  toe-crack  of  long  duration, 
or  a  deep  calk- wound  at  the  coronet. 

Prognosis. — Unfavorable,  whether  there  is 
lameness  or  not.  If  there  is  no  lameness  it 
is  very  apt  to  arise  later,  and  if  lameness  is 
already  present  it  can  only  be  removed  by 
an  operation,  which  should  be  performed  by 
a  veterinarian.  A  return  of  the  lameness 
following  hard  work  at  a  trot  upon  hard 
roads  is  always  to  be  feared. 

Shoeing. — An  ordinary  shoe  well  con- 
caved underneath  the  inflamed  region,  which 
should  be  relieved  of  all  pressure.* 


A  piece  of  wall  from  the  toe,  show- 
ing a  keraphyllocele  (horu-leaf 
tumor) :  a,  coronary  border ;  6,  plan- 
tar border;  c,  cone-shaped  horny 
tumor  with  a  cavity  (d)  in  which 
pus  had  collected. 


*  Should  lameness  persist,  it  will  be  necessary  to  remove  a  strip  of  the 
wall  from  the  plantar  border  to  the  coronet  in  order  to  expose  the  horn 
tumor.  The  fleshy  leaves  which  secrete  the  tumor  must  be  extirpated  and 
the  surface  of  the  os  pedis  well  scraped,  or  the  growth  will  return. 


CHAPTER    III. 


DEFECTS   OF  THE   HOOF. 


A.  Changes  of  Form. 
1.  The  Flat  and  the  Full  Hoof  (Dropped  Sole). 
(a)  Flat  Hoof. — A  flat  hoof  is  one  whose  toe  and  side  walls 
are  inclined  very  obliquely  to  the  ground  surface,  and  whose  solo 
is  on  a  level  with  the  bearing-surface  of  the  wall. 

It  exists  most  often  in  horses  bred  in  low-lying,  marshy  coun- 
tries. 

Frequently  the  frog  is  well  developed,  and  projects  consider- 
ably beyond  the  level  of  the  wall.  The  branches  of  the  sole 
sink  perceptibly  under  the  weight  of  the  body,  much  more  than 
in  better-formed  hoofs. 

Preparing  the  Hoof  for  the  Shoe. — The  rule  is  to  spare  the 
plantar  surface  of  the  foot.     After  removing  from  the  sole  what 

little  loose  horn  there  may  be, 
level  Ihe  usually  deficient  bear- 
ing-surface of  the  wall  with  the 
rasp.  The  outer  border  of 
the  wall,  especially  at  the  toe, 
should  be  rounded  off  rather 
more  strongly  than  usual,  be- 
cause the  toe  requires  and  will 
bear  considerable  shortening. 
Outward  bendings  of  the  lower 
border  of  the  wall  should  be 
removed  as  far  as  it  is  prac- 
ticable to  do  so. 
The  shoe,  which  should  be  rather  wider  in  the  web  and  thicker 
than  usual,  should  have  its  bearing-surface  shaped  to  correspond 

154 


C'russ-.suctuin  ot  ashod  Uatfoot  :  a,  suttu'iently 
high  bearing-edge  of  wall,  and  a  horizontal 
bearing-surface  on  the  shoe ;  h,  insnffipient 
height  of  bearing-edge  of  wall,  and  therefore 
a  corresponding  downward  and  inward  incli- 
nation of  the  bearing-surface  of  the  shoe. 


HORSESHOEING.  155 

to  the  bearing-surface  of  the  wall ;  that  is,  if  the  bearing-surface 
of  the  wall  is  below"  the  margin  of  the  sole  (the  sole  of  the  foot 
being  uppermost),  then  the  bearing-surface  of  the  shoe  should 
incline  downward  and  inward  (Fig.  144,  6).  The  bearing-surface 
of  the  branches,  however,  must  always  remain  horizontal.  The 
shoe  always  requires  deep  concaving,  especially  along  the  inner 
branch  of  the  sole.  If  the  quarters  are  weak,  the  w^alls  defective, 
or  there  are  corns,  cracks,  loose  walls,  or  other  diseases  of  the 
hoof,  a  bar-shoe  should  be  selected. 

(b)  Full  Hoof  (Dropped  Sole). — A  full  hoof  is  one  whose  sole 
instead  of  being  concave  is  convex, — that  is,  bulges  beyond  the 
bearing-surface  of  the  wall.  It  either  arises  gradually  from  a  flat 
hoof  or  is  the  result  of  laminitis  (founder).  In  full  hoofs  the  lower 
surface  of  the  os  pedis  is  of  the  same  shape  as  the  horny  sole. 

The  preparation  of  a  full  hoof  for  the  shoe  consists  merely  in 
removing  all  loose  horn.  In  case  the  dropping  of  the  sole  is  very 
pronounced,  the  bearing  surface  of  the  wall  should  be  built  up 
artificially  with  Defay's  hoof  cement.  The  shoe  should  be  light, 
but  broad  in  the  web,  and  furnished  with  a  more  or  less  deep 
concaving,  which  extends  from  the  inner  edge  of  the  web  to  the 
outer  edge  of  the  shoe,  and  corresponds  in  shape  to  the  bulging 
of  the  sole.  By  reason  of  the  deficiency  of  the  wall,  the  bar- 
shoe  deserves  the  preference  over  an  open  shoe.  It  is  fre- 
quently necessary  to  apply  toe-  and  heel-calks  to  remove  the  hoof 
from  contact  with  the  ground.  The  nails  should  be  thinner  and 
longer  than  usual,  and  a  more  secure  position  of  the  shoe  may  be 
secured  without  injury  to  the  hoof  by  drawing  up  two  side-clips. 

Flat  and  full  hoofs  are  incurable.  Shoeing  is  of  benefit  only 
in  rendering  such  horses  serviceable.  Soles  that  are  soft  and 
sensitive  should  be  smeared  with  crude  turpentine  or  pine-tar, 
though  unusual  sensitiveness  calls  for  a  leather  sole.  Horses 
with  full  hoofs  should  not  be  driven  faster  than  a  walk  over  hard 
roads.  During  long-continued  spells  of  wet  weather  softening 
of  these  hoofs  should  be  prevented  by  smearing  the  soles  with  a 
hoof-ointment  containin":  resin. 


156  HORSESHOEING. 

2.  The  Upright  or  Stumpy  Hoof. 

The  upright  or  stumpy  hoof  is  that  form  in  which  the  quarters, 
with  relation  to  the  toe,  are  too  long  (too  high).  The  wall  at  the 
toe  stands  very  steep,  in  some  cases  perpendicular,  and  is  strongly 
worn  away  by  standing  and  travelling. 

Causea. — 1.  The  upright  hoof  is  peculiar  to  the  "standing 
under"  position  (Fig.  46,  page  62)  and  to  the  so-called  bear-foot 
(Fig.  62,  page  QQ). 

2.  It  arises  also  as  a  result  of  all  those  alterations  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  limbs  which  tend  to  remove  the  quarters  from  con- 
tact with  the  ground  (contraction  of  the  flexor  tendons,  spavin). 

3.  It  may  arise  gradually  from  neglect  of  the  hoofs  of  horses 
running  barefoot. 

4.  It  may  arise  from  excessive  shortening  of  the  toe  in  relation 
to  the  quarters. 

Shoeing. — The  forms  of  hoofs  mentioned  in  class  1  should  be 
left  as  they  are.     The  hoofs  that  fall  under  class  2  should  be 

dressed  and  shod  until  a  more  natu- 
ral setting  down  of  the  foot  is  se- 
cured. This  is  brought  about  by 
sparing  the  quarters,  and  applying  a 
shoe  with  thickened  branches  or 
with  heel-calks.  Where  the  service 
of  the  animal  is  exacting  and  upon 
hard  streets,  the  toes,  especially  of 

Upright  or  stumpy  hoof,  shod  with  a  ,  .  ,  -, 

.'tip."  the  hind  shoes,  may  be  made  more 

durable  by  welding  in  steel  plates. 
Besides,  the  shoe  should  be  moderately  base-wide  around  the 
toe, — that  is,  should  be  bevelled  downward  and  outward,  should 
have  a  strong  toe-clip,  and  should  be  quite  concave  at  the  toe  and 
rolled.  (Figs.  146  and  147.)  Should  the  hoof  tip  forward  when- 
ever the  weight  is  thrown  upon  the  limb,  a  shoe  with  a  spur 
projecting  from  the  centre  of  the  toe,  and  turning  back  and 
presshig  upon  the  wall  just  underneath  the  coronary  band,  will 
be  of  service. 


HORSESHOEING. 


157 


Only  those  upright  hoofs  which  are  the  result  of  the  causes 
mentioned  in  3  and  4  are  to  be  dressed  as  ordinary  hoofs,  and 


Fig.  14(i. 


Fir..  141 


Shoe  for  obtuse-angled  hoofs,  viewed  from  ground  surface,  hoof  surface,  and  in  profile. 

if  the  service  required  is  not  too  exacting  they  should  be  shod 
witli  tips  (Fig.  145),  or  with  shoes  with  thinned  branches. 

3.  The  Contracted  Hoop. 

A  hoof  which  has  deviated  from  its  normal  form  in  anch  a  manner 
that  its  posterior  half  either  in  part  or  as  a  tcliok.  is  too  narrow,  is 
a  contracted  hoof  The  walls  of  the  quarters  assume  an  abnor- 
mally oblique  direction  downward  and  inward  towards  the 
median  line  of  the  hoof. 

When  contraction  affects  only  one  quarter,  it  is  called  uni- 
lateral contraction,  or  abnormal  wryness. 

The  buttresses  are  usually  very  much  prolonged  and  press 
upon  the  frog  and  cause  it  to  shrink.  The  bars  no  longer  run  in 
the  natural  straight  direction  from  the  point  of  the  frog  backward 
and  outward,  but  describe  a  circle  passing  outward,  backward, 
and  inward. 

Contraction  affects  front  feet,  especially  those  of  the  acute- 
anyled  form,  more  often  than  hind  feet.  In  order  to  determine 
whether  or  not  a  hoof  is  too  narrow,  we  should  always  examine 
the  frog  and  its  lateral  lacunae.     If  the  frog  is  small  and  narrow, 


158  HORSESHOEING. 

and  the  lateral  lacunie  very  narrow  and  deep,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  but  that  the  hoof  is  too  narrow  (contracted). 

TJic  causes,  aside  from  too  little  exercise,  are  chiefly  errors  in 
shoeing,  such  as  weakening  the  posterior  half  of  the  hoof,  leav- 
ing too  long  a  toe,  either  neglecting  to  remove  the  spurs  of  horn 
which  grow  from  the  buttresses  and  press  upon  the  frog,  or  re- 
moving them  incompletely,  and  using  shoes  whose  branches  are 
either  too  toide  apart  or  are  inclined  downward  and  inward,  so 
that  under  the  weight  of  the  body  the  heels  are  squeezed  together 
and  contraction  is  favored. 

Prevention  and  Treatment. — First,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that  whatever  exercises  moderate  pressure  vpon  the  sole,  frog,  and 
bars  tends  to  expand  the  hoof.  The  action  and  value  of  the  va- 
rious shoes,  frog-,  and  sole-pads,  are  measured  by  this  rule.  For 
this  reason  a  shoe  with  heel-calks  is  never  advisable  if  an  open 
flat  shoe  without  other  means  of  relief  can  be  used.  Further- 
more, since  contraction  is  the  parent  of  nearly  all  diseases  of  the 
hoof  (corns,  quarter-cracks,  bar-cracks,  thrush  of  the  frog),  we 
should  use  the  greatest  care  to  prevent  it  by  dressing  the  hoof 
as  described  on  pages  85  to  89,  using  flat  shoes  with  a  horizontal 
bearing'-surface  for  the  quarters,  giving  abundant  exercise, 
preventing-  drying-  out  of  the  horn,  and  allowing  the  animal  to 
go  barefoot  whenever  possible. 

'"Where  the  contraction  is  but  slight  the  foregoing  rules  will  be 
found  sufficient.  In  very  pronounced  contraction,  where  the  hoof 
is  not  acute-angled,  an  expansive  shoe  with  clips  raised  at  the 
ends  of  the  branches  to  press  against  the  buttresses  may  prove 
very  advantageous  ;  but  under  no  conditions  should  violence  be 
used  in  expanding  the  heels  with  the  expanding-screw.  This 
is  an  act  of  extreme  delicacy,  and  should  be  performed  only  by 
experienced  veterinarians. 

For  contracted  hoofs  of  the  acute-angled  form  we  use  the  bar- 
shoe,  and  if  there  are  other  diseases  of  the  hoof  present,  or  if  we 
wish  a  more  rapid  and  continuous  expansive  action,  we  use  also 
a  leather  sole  with  foot-packing.    A  foul  frog  should  be  properly 


HORSESHOEING.  159 

cleansed,  and  then  disinfected  with  pine-tar  thinned  with  alcohol 
or  crude  wood-vinegar  (pyrol igneous  acid^. 

Further  curative  measures  are  :  turning  the  horse  out  without 
shoes  (expensive  and  seldom  practicable) ;  applying  tips  ;  using 
shoes  the  bearing-surface  of  whose  branches  inclines  downward 
and  outward  (unilateral  contraction  requires  but  one  branch  to 
be  so  constructed) ;  hoof-pads  of  rubber  (Hartmann's  pad),  straw, 
rope,  cork,  hoof-cement,  etc.  Special  forms  of  contraction  are 
distinguished,  and  are  as  follows  : 

(a)  The  Contraction  of  Wide  Hoofs. — This  contraction  is  man- 
ifest as  a  concavity  or  groove  in  the  wall  just  below  the  coronet, 
usually  at  the  quarters,  though  sometimes  extending  entirely 
around  the  foot  parallel  to  the  coronary  band.  Pain  is  produced 
in  the  contracted  area  by  lightly  tapping  the  horn,  but  not  by 
moderate  pressure  with  the  hoof-testers. 

Green  horses  with  wide  hoofs,  just  from  the  pasture,  are  par- 
ticularly liable  to  this  form  of  contraction.  As  a  rule,  the  lame- 
ness does  not  disappear  completely  until  the  wall  has  assumed 
its  natural,  straight  direction  by  grow'ing  down  properly  from  the 
coronary  band. 

In  dressing  the  hoof  and  applying  the  bar-shoe,  care  must  be 
taken  that  the  lower  border  of  the  wall  underneath  the  painful 
area  is  lowered  so  much  that  it  will  not  receive  direct  pressure 
from  the  shoe. 

(6)  Contraction  of  the  Sole. — This  is  accompanied  by  an  unnat- 
ural direction  of  the  wall.  Instead  of  the  wall  being  straight 
from  the  coronet  to  the  shoe,  it  describes  a  curve  whose  con- 
vexity is  outward  (keg-shaped,  claw-shaped  when  seen*  from  the 
side).  The  hoof  seems  constricted  (tied  in)  at  the  coronet  and 
at  its  plantar  border,  the  sole  is  abnormally  concave  (arched), 
and  the  plantar  surface  of  the  hoof  is  considerably  shortened 
from  toe  to  heel.  It  happens  in  both  shod  and  unshod  horses, 
with  otherwise  strong  hoofs,  but  is  very  rare. 

Cait.^es. — Principally   dryness,  too    little   exercise,  and   shoes 
without  horizontal  bearing-surface. 


160 


HORSESHOEING. 


Tlie  treatment  is  correspondingly  simple :  flat  shoes  with  per- 
fectly horizontal  bearing-surface,  and  in  very  strongly  marked 
cases  clips  at  the  ends  of  the  branches  (buttress  clips). 

In  all  forms  of  contraction  of  the  hoof  abundant  exercise  and  the 
maintenance  of  the  natural  pliancy  of  the  horn  by  daily  moistening 
(washing)  with  water  are  absolutely  necessary  for  successful  ti'eat- 
ment. 

4.  The  Wry  Hoof. 

If  one  side  wall  and  quarter  is  steep,  and  the  other  very  slant- 
ing or  oblique,  w^e  term  such  a  hoof  a  "  wry  hoof."  Such  a 
hoof  divided  in  the  middle  line  presents  two  very  dissimilar 
halves.  There  are  three  classes  of  wry  hoofs:  1,  normal  wry 
hoofs  (see  page  69) ;  2,  pathological  wry  hoofs,  or  hoofs  con- 
tracted in  one  quarter  (see  contracted  hoofs) ;  3,  wry  hoofs 
which  are  the  result  of  improper  shortening  of  the  wall  and  of 
neglect  in  horses  running  barefoot. 

Only  the  second  and  third  classes  of  wry  hoofs  require  es- 
pecial attention.  First,  the  more  ob- 
lique wall  nmst  be  cut  down,  and  the 
steep  wall  spared, — a  procedure  which 
differs  essentially  from  that  employed 
in  treating  the  first  class,  but  is,  never- 
theless, entirely  warranted,  because 
these  second  and  third  kinds  of  wry 
hoofs  do  not  correspond  to  the  direc- 
tion of  the  limb. 

In  order  to  take  weight  from  the 
steep  wall,  we  use  with  advantage  a 
bar-shoe,  which  should  be  longer  and 
wider  than  the  hoof  on  its  contracted 
side.  In  other  words,  enlarge  the  base  of  support  by  making 
the  branch  of  the  shoe  broader.  If  the  whole  outside  wall  is 
contracted  the  outer  branch  of  the  shoe  must  be  broad,  the  bor- 
der bevelled  base-wide,  and  the  branch  punched  so  deei)ly  that 
the  nail-holes  will  fall  upon  the  white  line. 


Fig.  148. 


A  patholiigically  wi-y  left  hind 
hoof.  Theouter branch  of  the  shoe, 
which  is  broader  than  the  inner, 
should  have  a  base-wide  border  and 
project  far  enough  to  support  the 
coronet. 


HORSESHOEING.  161 

In  old  work-horses  any  sort  of  shoe  may  be  used,  though  a  flat 
shoe  serves  the  purpose  best.  If  a  hoof  is  wry  from  faulty  paring, 
and  we  cannot  at  once  completely  restore  the  proper  relative 
slant  of  the  two  walls  by  paring  alone,  we  may  use  a  shoe  with  a 
thicker  branch  for  the  half  of  the  hoof  which  is  too  low  (too  steep). 

In  colts  such  wry  hoofs  can  often  be  cured  only  by  shoeing. 
The  shoe  employed  for  this  purpose  is  so  made  that  the  branch 
underneath  the  steep  (contracted)  wall  is  c|uite  thick,  but  gradu- 
ally thins  away  around  the  toe  to  the  end  of  the  other  branch. 
In  strongly  marked  cases  the  thin  branch  may  end  at  the  middle 
of  the  side  wall  (a  three-quarter  shoe).  This  method  of  shoe- 
ing shifts  the  body-weight  upon  the  slanting  wall  and  restores 
the  foot  to  its  proper  shape  in  from  two  to  four  shoeings. 

Causes. — Unequal  distribution  of  the  weight  in  the  inner  and 
outer  halves  of  the  foot,  in  conjunction  with  excessive  cutting 
down  or  wear  of  the  steeper  wall.  All  faults  in  shoeing  which 
tend  to  produce  contraction  of  the  heels  aid  in  the  formation  of 
a  wry  foot,  especially  when  these  faults  directly  affect  the  steep 
wall.  Neglect  of  the  colt's  hoofs  during  the  first  years  of  life 
frequently  lays  the  basis  for  wry  foot  in  later  years.  All  wry 
feet  are  more  susceptible  to  disease  than  others. 

The  amount  or  degree  of  wryness  varies  considerably.  In  a 
moderately  developed  case  the  steep  wall  (usually  the  inner)  will 
be  drawn  in  at  the  plantar  border  of  the  quarter,  presenting  a 
convex  surface  between  this  border  and  the  coronet,  and  the  ad- 
jacent branch  of  the  frog  will  be  less  or  more  shrunken.  In 
extreme  cases  the  slanting  wall  (usually  the  outer)  will  also  be 
involved  and  bent  in  the  opposite  direction, — i.e.,  will  be  con- 
cave (dished)  between  coronet  and  lower  border  (crooked  hoof). 

Prognosis. — When  the  degree  of  wryness  corresponds  to  the 
slant  of  the  foot-axis  and  the  old  shoe  shows  nearly  uniform 
wear,  the  defect  is  not  directly  injurious.  In  very  pronounced 
"  wryness,"  however,  with  thin,  bent  walls,  a  number  of  asso- 
ciated lesions,  such  as  corns  and  cracks,  may  be  present  and 
render  the  animal  unfit  for  service  upon  paved  or  macadam  roads. 

11 


162 


HORSESHOEING. 


Fig.  149. 


5.  The  Crooked  Hoof. 
A  crooked  hoof  (Fig.  149)  is  one  whose  walls  (viewed  from  in 
front  or  behind)  do  not  pass  in  a  straight,  natural  direction  from 
the  coronet  to  the  ground,  but  are  bent  in  such  a  manner  that 
the  bearing- surface  of  the  wall  in  relation  to  the  foot  axis  lies 
either  too  far  out  or  in. 

It  may  occur  on  any  foot,  but  is  seldom   strongly  marked. 
Causes. — The  causes  are  either  long-continued  leaving  of  one- 
half  of  the  wall  too  high,  or  the  use  of  shoes  shaped  for  normal 

feet  upon  hoofs  of  the  base- 
wide  position. 

The  principal  part  of  the 
treatment  is  the  proper  dress- 
ing of  the  hoof.  The  wall 
which  is  bent  out  at  the  mid- 
dle and  drawn  in  at  the  plantar 
border  is,  as  a  rule,  too  high 
and  too  near  the  centre  of  the 
foot  (too  narrow) ;  the  oppo- 
site wall,  on  the  contrary,  is 
too  low  and  too  far  from  the 
centre  of  the  foot  (too  wide). 
This  explains  the  manner  in 
which  the  hoof  should  be  cut 
down  and  rasped.  The  shoe 
must  be  laid  out  as  far  as  pos- 
sible towards  the  side  which 
too  high  and  narrow.     A 


A  crooked  right  fore-hoof  of  the  base-wide 
position  :  a,  convex  wall,  too  high  ;  b,  concave 
wall,  too  low ;  c  d  shows  how  much  of  the 
outer  wall  must  be  removed  with  the  hoof- 
knife  ;  /,  superfluous  horn  to  be  removed  grad- 
ually with  the  rasp ;  c  e  and  g  h  indi(>ate  the 
position  of  the  shoe  with  relation  to  the  hoof. 


IS 


straight    edge   placed   against 

the  high  wall  touches  it  only 

at   its   middle.     The  distance 

of  this  line  from  the  lower  edge  of  the  wall  shows  us  how  far  the 

surface  of  support — namely,  the  shoe — should  be  set  out  beyond 

the  horn.     If  the  straight  edge  be  placed  against  the  opposite 


HORSESHOEING.  163 

wall,  it  will  touch  only  at  the  coronet  and  at  the  plantar  border, 
showing  that  the  wall  is  concave.  The  distance  of  the  middle  of 
this  wall  from  the  straight  edge  shows  us  how  much  too  wide  this 
half  of  the  wall  is  at  its  plantar  border,  and  how  much  of  the 
outer  surface  of  the  wall  at  its  plantar  border  should  be  removed 
with  the  rasp.  The  restoration  of  a  crooked  hoof  to  its  normal 
form  requires  several  shoeings. 

6.  Ossification  of  the  Lateral  Cartilage  (Side-Bone). 

The  ossification  of  a  lateral  cartilage  consists  in  a  change  of 
the  cartilage  into  bone.  Heavy  horses  are  more  frequently 
affected  than  lighter  ones.  It  most  often  involves  the  outer  car- 
tilages of  the  forefeet,  seldom  both  cartilages.  Side-bones  always 
interfere  with  the  physiological  movements  of  the  foot,  and  may, 
indeed,  entirely  suppress  them. 

The  disease  can  only  be  diagnosed  with  certainty  after  the 
upper  part  of  the  cartilage  has  ossified.  The  coronet  is  then 
rather  prominent  (bulging),  and  feels  hard.  The  gait  is  short  and 
cautious,  and  well-marked  lameness  often  follows  severe  work. 
As  causes,  may  be  mentioned  predisposition  in  heavy  lymphatic 
horses,  and  violent  concussion  or  shock  due  to  fast  work  upon 
hard  roads.     The  disease  is  incurable. 

A  special  method  of  shoeing  is  only  necessary  when  the  outer 
cartilage  is  ossified  and  the  quarter  upon  that  side  is  contracted. 
After  removing  the  old  shoe,  whose  outer  branch  is,  as  a  rule, 
more  worn  away  than  the  inner,  the  outer  wall  will  always  be 
found  too  high,  due  to  the  fact  that  there  has  been  little  or  no 
expansion  and  contraction  in  this  quarter  and,  therefore,  little  or 
no  wear  of  the  horn  against  the  shoe.  The  hoof  is  therefore  wry, 
— on  the  outside  too  high,  and  on  the  inside  too  low.  This  shows 
us  how  the  foot  should  be  dressed  so  as  to  obtain  a  proper  base  of 
support  and  a  uniform  wear  of  the  shoe.  The  most  suitable  shoe 
is  a  flat  shoe,  whose  outer  branch  must  be  wider  than  the  inner. 
It  is  so  apphed  that  the  inner  branch  follows  the  edge  of  the  wall 
closely,  while  the  outer  branch  must  be  full  and  at  the  quarter 


164 


HORSESHOEING. 


must  extend  beyond  the  wall  far  enough  to  touch  a  perpendicular 
line  dropped  from  the  coronet  (Fig-.  151).  The  shoe  must,  there- 
fore, be  punched  deep  (coarse)  on  the  outer  branch  and  fine  on 


Fig  150 


Fig.  151. 


1  '"t  iiiiii  I 

Right  fore-hoof  whose  form  has  changed  as 
a  result  of  ossification  of  the  external  lateral 
cartilage. 


Shoe  with  broad  outer  branch,  for  the  hoof 
shown  in  the  preceding  cut. 


the  inner.  A  side-chp  must  be  placed  on  the  outer  branch,  be- 
cause in  time  the  outer  half  of  the  hoof  will  again  be  too  high. 
Bar-shoes  are  injurious  when  both  cartilages  are  ossified. 

B.  Disturbances  of  Continuity  of  the  Hoof. 
1.  Cracks. 

Interruptions  of  continuity  of  the  wall  extending  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  horn-tubes  are  known  as  cracks  or  seams.  They 
haAJ-e,  according  to  their  location,  degree,  and  extent,  not  only 
Tarious  names,  but  also  a  varying  significance. 

Occurrence. — On  the  inner  side  of  front  hoofs,  especially  of 
horses  that  stand  base-wide  ;  on  hind  hoofs,  usually  at  the  toe. 

Classification. — According  to  location  we  distinguish  toe- 
cracks,  side-cracks,  quarter-cracks,  and  bar-cracks.  Those 
cracks  which  affect  only  the  upper  border  of  the  hoof  are  called 


HORSESHOEING. 


165 


coronary  crachs ;  those  which  are  limited  to  the  lower  border  of 
the  hoof  are  sometimes  designated  loic  cracks;  while  those  which 
are  continuous  from  one  border  to  the  other  are  called  complete 
cracks.  If  the  crack  passes  through  the  entire  thickness  of  the 
wall  to  the  sensitive  tissues  underneath,  it  is  called  a  deep  ov  pene- 
trating crack.,  in  contradistinction  to  the  superficial  crack  (Fig.  152). 

Causes. — There  are  many.  Besides  wounds  of  the  coronet, 
everything  that  impairs  the  elasticity  of  the  horn,  weakens  the 
hoof,  and  causes  an  overloading  of  one-half  of  the  hoof.  Fur- 
thermore, great  dryness  and  excessive  work  on  hard  streets. 

Prognosis. — This  will  depend  upon  the  age,  kind,  and  location 
of  the  crack.  A  loio  crack  is  unthout  significance  unless  it  is  the 
remnant  of  an  old  coronary  crack  which  has  grown  down.  Coro- 
nary cracks.,  on  the  contrary,  are  more  serious  because  of  the 
lameness  which  often  accompanies  them,  and  especially  on  ac- 
count of  the  long  duration  of  the  healing  process. 

The  borders  of  the  crack  never  grow  together,  and  healing 
can  only  take  place  through  healthy,  unbroken  horn  growing 
down  from  the  coronary  band. 

(a)  Treatment  of  Coronary  and  Bar- Cricks. — If  practicable, 
allow  the  affected  horse  to  go  barefoot ;  otherwise,  the  use  of 
the  bar-shoe  for  all  cracks  is  ad- 
vised, because  it  wiU  continuously 
protect  the  diseased  section  of  wall 
from  pressure  by  the  shoe.  If  there 
are  present  still  other  diseases  of  the 
hoof  (corns,  contraction,  flat  or  full 
hoof),  the  addition  of  a  leather  sole 
with  packing  will  be  most  beneficial, 
not  only  in  favoring  the  healing  of 
the  crack,  but  also  in  improving 
the  form  of  the  hoof  and  in  favoring 

the  cure  of  the  other  lesions.  In  all  coronary  cracks  it  is  of 
advantage  to  assist  healing  by  fastening  or  immobilizing  the 
borders  of  the  crack  by  one  of  the  following  methods : 


Fig.  152. 


Hoof  exhiliitiiig  a  coronary  crack,  a 
plantar  or  low  crack,  and  a  complete 
deep  crack,  the  latter  with  a  nail  ready 
to  be  clinched. 


166  HORSESHOEING. 

1.  By  rivets  (nails),  which  pass  across  the  crack  through  holes 
previously  drilled  in  the  horn. 

2.  By  clamps  or  hooks,  which  by  means  of  special  pincers  are 
forced  into  pockets  previously  burnt  into  the  horn  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  crack. 

.    3.  By  a  thin  iron  plate  placed  across  the  crack  and  secured 
by  small  wood  screws. 

4.  By  means  of  wood  screws,  screwed  at  right  angles  through 
the  edges  of  the  crack. 

5.  By  means  of  a  bandage  to  last  one  shoeing  period. 

In  all  cases  the  hoof  should  be  dressed  with  such  care  that 
the  shoe  will  fit  air-tight.  Before  the'  shoe  is  nailed  on  it  is 
necessary  to  relieve  pressure  from  certain  parts  of  the  wall. 
For  toe-cracls  we  use,  as  a  rule,  an  o]3.en  shoe  upon  which,  under 
certain  conditions,  clips  are  raised  upon  the  ends  of  the  branches 
to  press  against  the  buttresses.  Two  lateral  toe-clips  (Fig.  153) 
are  drawn  up,  and  the  wall  between  these  clips  is  cut  down  from 
a  twelfth  to  an  eighth  of  an  inch. 

For  side-cracks  we  determine  the  extent  of  wall  to  be  laid  free 
in  the  following  manner :  We  imagine  the  crack  to  be  prolonged 
in  the  direction  of  the  horn-tubes  to  the  plantar  border,  and  drop 
a  perpendicular  line  from  the  upper  end  of  the  crack  to  the 
plantar  border.  That  part  of  the  plantar  border  lying  between 
these  two  points  is  then  to  be  lowered  sufficiently  to  prevent 
pressure  from  the  shoe  until  the  next  shoeing  (Fig.  154). 

For  quarter-cracks  we  use  a  bar-shoe,  and  proceed  as  described 
above,  even  when  the  perpendicular  line  falls  behind  the  buttress. 

Next  to  shoeing,  honf-jxKls  iviidor  good  service,  because 
through  them  a  part  of  the  budy-wuiglit  is  distributed  over  the 
sole  and  frog.  They  assist  in  widening  the  hoof,  and  lessen 
shock  Mdien  the  foot  is  set  to  the  ground.  These  are  all  matters 
which  favor  the  growing  down  of  coherent  (unbroken)  horn. 

When  the  crack  gaps  widely,  and  the  frog  is  small  and  deep  in 
the  foot,  a  shoe  with  bar-clijjs  (Defay's  shoe)  may  be  used.  It  is 
not  impossilDle,  indeed,  to  obtain  a  cure  by  using  an  ordinary 


HORSESHOEING. 


167 


open  flat  shoe,  though  much  will  depend  upon  the  other  lesions 
that  may  be  present,  the  nature  of  the  hoof,  and  the  service 
required  of  the  animal. 

If  the  edges  of  the  crack  are  irregular  and  overlapping,  the 
shoer  should  carefully  thin  away  all  overlapping  edges.  Tliin- 
ning  thejiornon  both  sides  of  the  crack  over  the  coronary  band, 
preventing  drying  out  of  the  horn,  and  frequent  applications  of 
laurel  oil  to  the  coronet  favor  growth  of  undivided  horn  and 
guard  against  a  renewal  of  the  crack. 

If  in  the  beginning  of  the  disease  there  is  inflammation  and 
lameness,   cooling  poultices  should  be   used  for  several  days. 


Fig.  153. 


Toe-craek  immobilizef^  by  lateral  toe- 
clips:  a,  bearinff-surface  left  fieo  from 
pressure ;  b,  heads  of  the  rivets  (nails) . 


Fig.  154. 


Hoof  with  coronary  quarter-cract,  shod  with 
a  bar-shoe.  The  part  of  the  quarter  relieved  of 
pressure  (o)  is  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines;  b, 
iron  plate  secured  by  small  wood  screws. 


"When  there  is  no  lameness,  the  horse  may  be  used  for  slow 
draught  purposes.      Coach-  and  saddle-horses  shoidd  be  hept  from  t 
fast  work  nntil  sound  horn  has  groion  doicn  at  least  two-fifths  of  an  \ 
inch  from  the  coronet. 

Bar-cracks  are  usually  the  result  of  changes  of  position  of  the 
quarters,  and  are  just  as  frequently  brought  about  by  contraction 
as  by  leaving  the  quarters  too  high.     We  see  them  almost  en- 


168  HORSESHOEING. 

tirely  upon  the  fore-hoofs.  They  seldom  occur  alone,  but  are 
usually  accompanied  by  corns.  When  the  crack  extends  to  the 
pododerm  tliere  is  a  superficial  inflammation  of  the  pododerm 
and  lameness.  When  treatment  is  not  promptly  begun  the 
inflammation  extends  to  the  deeper  layers  of  the  pododerm,  or, 
indeed,  even  to  the  plantar  cushion,  and  gives  rise  to  swelling  of 
the  bulb  of  the  heel  upon  that  side  and  to  a  well-marked  lame- 
ness, which  requires  treatment  by  a  competent  veterinarian. 

Ordinarily  a  bar-crack  is  only  found  by  a  close  examination 
of  the  hoof  after  the  shoe  has  been  removed.  In  paring  the 
hoof  the  crack  usually  appears  as  a  dark  streak,  sometimes  as  a 
bloody  fissure ;  not  infrequently  grayish  hoof-pus  is  discovered 
in  the  depths  of  the  crack. 

The  treatment  must  be  directed  towards  favoring  the  growth 
of  a  continuous  (unbroken)  bar.  This  is  accomplished  by  com- 
pletely removing  the  edges  of  the  crack,  paring  the  horn  of  the 
vicinity  very  thin,  and  preventing  the  least  pressure  upon  the 
wall  of  this  quarter  by  the  shoe,  by  lowering  this  quarter  with 
the  rasp  and  applying  a  bar-shoe  with  leather  sole. 

Following  the  removal  of  the  edges  of  the  crack  there  often 
appears,  especially  in  stumpy  hoofs,  a  deep  groove  ;  if  the  bottom 
of  this  groove  is  moist,  we  should  pack  it  with  oakum  wet  with 
tincture  of  myrrh  or  tincture  of  aloes,  and  cover  the  oakum  with 
wax  (grafting  wax).  The  cracks  will  return  if  the  exciting 
causes  cannot  be  completely  removed. 

(6)  Treatment  of  Loiv  Cracks  {Plantar  Border  Cracl's). — These 
cracks,  occurring  principally  upon  the  hoofs  of  unshod  horses, 
are  the  result  of  excessive  stretching  and  bending  of  the  lower 
border  of  the  wall.  Insufficient  rounding  of  the  wall  with  the 
rasp  is  largely  responsible  for  them.  An  exciting  cause  in  shod 
horses  is  the  use  of  too  large  nails  in  shoes  that  are  punched  too 
fine. 

Every  coronary  crack  becomes  in  time  a  low  or  plantar-border 
crack,  and  this  has  an  important  bearing  upon  the  prognosis, 


HORSESHOEING. 


169 


because  a  renewal  of  the  coronary  crack  will  be  followed  by  a 
low  crack. 

In  order  to  remove  these  cracks  it  is  sufficient  merely  to  shoe 
the  horse.  Upon  shod  horses  they  may  be  prevented  by  using 
properly  punched  shoes  and  thin  nails.  The  lower  border  of 
the  wall  near  the  crack  should  be  reheved  of  pressure  by  cutting 
out  a  half-moon-shaped  piece  of  horn.  To  prevent  the  crack 
from  extending  farther  upward  we  may  burn  a  transverse  slot  at 
the  upper  end  of  the  crack,  in  as  far  as  the  leafy  layer  of  the 
wall,  or  cut  such  a  slot  with  a  small  hoof-knife. 


Fig.  155. 


2.  Clefts. 

An  interruption  of  continuity  of  the  wall,  at  right  angles  to  the 
direction  of  the  horn-tubes,  is  called  a  cleft. 

Clefts  may  occur  at  any  part  of  the  wall ;  yet  they  occur  most 
often  upon  the  inner  toe  and  inner 
side,  as  a  result  of  injury  from 
sharp,  improperly  placed  heel-calks 
(see  page  145).  However,  sup- 
purating corns,  or  other  suppura- 
tive processes  situated  at  the  coro- 
net or  which  find  their  point  of 
escape  at  the  coronet,  may  from 
time  to  time  lead  to  separations  of 
continuity  and  the  formation  of 
horn-clefts. 

Horn-clefts,  though  the  result 
of  lesions  which  are  often  very  in- 
jurious and  interfere  with  the  use 
of  the  horse,  are  of  themselves 
not  an  evil  Avhich  can  be  abolished 
or  healed  by  shoeing,  although,  in 

many  cases,  proper  shoeing  would  have  prevented  them.  A  horn- 
cleft  is  not  a  matter  for  consideration  by  the  shoer  until  it  has 
grown  down  so  far  that  it  comes  within  the  region  of  the  nails. 


Hoof  with  clefts  of  the  toe  and  side  wall. 


170  HORSESHOEING. 

In  order  not  to  disfigure  tlie  lioof  unnecessarily,  the  horn 
below  the  cleft  should  be  kept  in  place  as  long  as  possible  by 
shortening  the  wall  at  that  point,  to  remove  shoe-pressure,  and 
by  driving  no  nails  into  it.  If,  however,  the  horn  is  loose  and 
about  to  come  away,  it  should  be  removed  and  the  defect  filled 
with  Defay's  patent  horn-cement. 

3.  Loose  Wall. 

Separation  of  the  wall  from  the  sole  in  the  white  line  is  called 
loose  wall  (Fig.  156,  a). 

Occurrence, — Frequent  on  the  fore-hoofs  of  shod  and  unshod 
horses,  and  oftener  upon  the  inner  than  upon  the  outer  side. 
More  rare  on  hind  hoofs.  Common  bred  horses  with  wide  and 
flat  feet  are  predisposed  to  this  trouble. 

We  distinguish  superjicial  and  deep  loose  wall;  only  the  latter 
requires  the  shoer's  attention,  because  it  leads  to  lameness. 

Causes. — Walls  which  are  very  oblique  (slanting) ;  outward 
bendings  of  the  plantar  border  of  the  wall ;  burning  the  horn 
with  hot  shoes;  dryness;  neglected  shoeing;  excessive  softening 
of  the  horn  with  poultices,  particularly  of  cow-dung  ;  careless- 
ness in  preparing  the  bearing-surfaces  of  hoof  and  shoe  in  shoe- 
ing ;  uneven  fitting  of  the  shoe. 

Treatment. — It  aims  to  remove  the  lameness  and  to  favor 
growth  of  coherent  horn.  In  the  first  place  the  removal  of  the 
exciting  causes,  followed  by  proper  shortening  of  the  wall.  We 
should  apply  a  shoe  whose  bearing-surface  inclines  slightly  down- 
ward and  inward,  is  perfectly  smooth,  and  wide  enougli  to  cover 
the  wall,  white  line,  and  outer  border  of  the  sole  ;  the  iron  should 
be  only  moderately  warm.  Where  there  is  lameness  we  use  a 
leather  sole  with  packing,  or  a  bar-shoe.  The 'loose  wall  should 
be  freed  from  shoe-pressure  only  when  it  does  not  extend  far 
along  the  white  line.  When  the  separation  is  extensive  the  loose 
wall  should  not  be  lowered.  The  crack  should  be  filled  with 
wood-tar,  crude  turpentine,  or  soft  grafting-wax. 

If  a  loose  wall  occur  upon  the  foot  of  a  horse  while  running 


HORSESHOEING. 


171 


Fig.  156. 


barefoot,  all  separated  horn  should  be  removed ;  if,  on  account 
of  the  nature  of  the  ground,  this  seems  to  be  impracticable,  the 
hoof  must  be  shod. 

Care  of  the  Hoof. — Shoe  at  least  every  four  to  five  weeks. 
Preserve  the  pliancy  and  toughness  of  the  horn  by  judicious 
moistening. 

4.  Hollow  Wall. 

A  hollow  wall  is  one  in  which  a  separation  has  occurred  be- 
tween the  middle  layer  of  the  wall  and  the  keraphyllous  layer. 
This  crack  or  separation 
always  extends  in  the  di- 
rection of   the  layers  of 
the  wall  (Fig.  156,  h). 

0  ccurrenc e. — Quite 
rare. 

We  should  suspect  a 
hollow  wall  when  a  part 
of  the  wall  rounds  out 
prominently  beyond  the  rest, 

and  gives  forth  a  hollow  (resonant)  sound  when  struck.  The 
white  line  presents  a  crack,  yet  we  should  hesitate  to  form  a 
conclusion  as  to  the  extent  of  the  separation  from  the  extent  of 
the  crack  along  the  white  line,  since  the  latter  may  be  consider- 
ably smaller.  The  separation  extends  higher  up  the  wall  than  in 
the  case  of  loose  wall,  frequently  to  the  coronet.  The  cavity  is 
usually  filled  with  crumbling,  disintegrated  horn. 

Hollow  wall  is  not  often  accompanied  by  pain.  Lameness 
may  arise,  however,  if  the  hollow  section  of  wall  assists  in  bear- 
ing the  body- weight,  and  if  the  animal  does  fast  work  upon  paved 
streets. 

Causes. — Mechanical  influences  resulting  in  chronic  inflamma- 
tion of  fleshy  leaves. 

Treatment. — A  cure  is  possible,  but  requires  considerable  time. 
In  shoeing,  which  should  always  aim  to  relieve  pressure  from  the 


An  imaginary  transverse  yertieal  sectiim  of  a  hoof 
showing  (a)  loose  wall  and  (b)  hollow  wall. 


172 


HORSESHOEING. 


hollow  section  of  wall,  we  cleanse  the  cavity  and  fill  it  with 
oakum  and  tar,  crude  turpentine,  or  wax.  Where  the  separation 
is  very  extensive  we  use  a  bar-shoe. 

The  time  required  for  complete  cure  of  hollow  and  loose 
walls  will  depend  upon  the  height  of  the  separation  (see  growth 
of  the  hoof,  page  73), 

5.  Thrush  of  the  Frog. 

When  the  horny  frog  is  ragged  and  fissured,  and  an  ill-smelling, 
dark-colored  licjuid  collects  in  the  lacunae  of  the  frog,  it  is  affected 
with  thrush.     When  thrush  exists  uninterruptedly  for  several 

months   the  perioplic 
Fig-  157.  band  is  irritated  and 

forms  rings  of  periople 
which  assume  an  ir- 
regular course  and 
cross  the  rings  of  the 
middle  layer  of  the  | 
wall  (Fig.  157). 

The  causes :  un- 
cleanliness,  too  little 
exercise  in  fresh  air, 
excessive  paring  of 
the  frog,   the  use  of 

Hoof  with  irregular  superficial  rings  resulting  from  thrush     shoeS     ^^'ith    Calks  ^By 
of  tile  frog.  1  •    1     11       r- 

which  the  frog  is  per- 
manently removed  fromJiie  ground,  and  the  use  of  frog-pads 
which  are  kept  on  from  month  to  month. 

The  consequences  are,  besides  contraction  of  the  hoof,  soreness 
in  travelling,  a  shortening  of  the  step,  and,  occasionally,  well- 
marked  lameness. 

Treatment. — Removal  of  all  greasy  horn  from  the  frog,  and  of 
the  prominent  overgrown  angles  of  the  buttresses  (see  page  87), 
thorough  wasjiing  of  the  frog  once  or  twice  daily,  abundant 
exercise,  and  shoes  without  calks. 


CHAPTER   IV. 

SHOEIXG  MULES,  ASSES,  AXD   OXEN. 

1.  The  shoeing  of  mules  and  asses  is,  as  in  the  case  of  horses, 
a  necessity  if  these  animals  are  to  be  used  for  draught  or  saddle 
purposes  on  hard  streets.  The  structure  and  characteristics  of 
the  hoofs  of  these  animals  are  quite  similar  to  those  of  the  horse, 
differing  chiefly  in  the  form  and  thickness  of  the  wall.  The  mule 
hoof  is  long  and  narrow  and  round  at  the  toe,  the  sole  is  well 
arched,  and  the  side  walls  are  rather  steep.  In  the  ass  the  nar- 
rowness of  hoof  is  still  more  pronounced,  the  wall  is  relatively 
thick,  the  frog  is  particularly  well  developed  in  its  branches, 
and  therefore  the  hoof  is  relatively  wide  in  the  region  of  the 
quarters.     The  horn  of  both  mule  and  ass  is  tough. 

The  shoes  differ  from  those  of  the  horse  in  no  other  respect 
than  that  they  should  be  lighter  and  narrower.  Four  nail-holes 
are  sufficient  for  an  ass's  shoe,  and  five  to  six  for  a  mule's. 

On  account  of  the  hardness  and  toughness  of  the  walls,  we 
use  nails  that  are  short  but  strong  in  the  shank ;  nails  with  weak 
shanks  are  apt  to  bend  in  driving. 

2.  The  shoeing  of  oxen  is  essentially  different  from  that  of 
horses,  because  the  foot  of  the  ox  is  cloven  (split),  the  long  pas- 
tern, short  pastern,  and  hoof-bone  are  double,  so  that,  instead  of 
one  hoof  or  claw,  there  are  two  upon  each  foot,  distinguished  as 
outer  and  inner.  Each  claw  consists  of  wall,  sole,  and  bulbs ; 
the  frogisabsent.  The  Avail  is  considerably  thinner  than  that 
of  the  horse's  hoof,  the  sole  is  thin,  and  the  bulbs  are  low.  For 
these  reasons  the  shoe  designed  for  a  claw  must  be  thin,  but 
wide . 

The  holes  must  be  punched  fine  and  the  nails  be  quite  short 
and  strong.    On  each  shoe  a  long  tongue  should  be  made  on  the 

173 


174 


HORSESHOEING. 


inner  edge  near  the  toe,  and  so  directed  that  it  can  be  turned 
upward  and  outward  to  embrace  the  toe  of  the  claw.  A  small 
clip  raised  on  the  outer  toe  of  each  shoe  will  increase  its  sta- 
bility. In  some  parts  Of  Saxony  the  shoes  are  so  made  that  the 
tongue  of  each  shoe  begins  in  the  rear  third  of  its  inner  edge  and 
runs  forward,  upward,  and  outward,  closely  embracing  the  wall 
of  the  toe.  The  smaller  clip  is  drawn  up  on  the  outer  edge  of 
the  shoe  close  to  the  toe.  These  shoes  are  more  difficult  to 
'make,  but  when  applied  sit  more  hrmly  and  remain  fast  longer 

Fig.  158. 


A  shod  ox-claw. 

than  all  others.  An  undivided  shoe  (the  so-called  "  closed  claw- 
shoe")  is  unsuitable  for  oxen,  because  it  deprives  both  claws  of 
their  natural,  free  movements.  However,  such  a  shoe  is  of  ad- 
vantage for  heavy  draught  over  hard  and  very  rough  roads,  be- 
cause it  lessons  the  liability  of  the  fetlock  and  coronary  joints 
and  the  cleft  of  the  claws  to  strains. 

Great  difficulty  is  often  encountered  in  holding  Ihe  feet  during 
the  operation  of  shoeing.  It  is  necessary  to  fasten  the  head 
securely  against  a  tree,  post,  or  wall.     A  front  foot  maybe  raised 


HORSESHOEING.  175 

and  held  by  passing  a  slip-noose  in  the  end  of  a  rope  or  side-line 
around  the  fetlock  and  carrying  the  line  over  the  withers  to  the 
opposite  side,  where  it  is  held  by  an  assistant.  A  hind  limb  may 
be  controhed  by  passing  a  round  pole  in  front  of  the  hock  of  the 
leg  to  be  raised,  and,  with  a  man  at  each  end  of  the  pole,  carry- 
ing the  limb  backward  and  upward,  in  which  position  it  is  held ; 
or  the  limb  may  be  bent  and  controlled  by  tightening  a  twitch 
or  tourniquet  upon  the  leg  just  above  the  hock  (Fig.  159).  Oxen 
that  continue  to  resist  may  sometmies  be  quieted  by  light  blows 

Fig.  159. 


Hind  foot  raised  by  means  of  a  round  pole. 

of  a  short  stick  upon  the  base  of  the  horns.  In  parts  of  the 
country  where  many  oxen  are  shod  stocks  are  in  common  use. 
Very  satisfactory  stocks  have  been  designed  by  Gutenacker,  of 
Munich  (Fig.  160).  The  four  corner-posts  (a,  a,  6,  h)  are  eight 
inches  square  and  eight  feet  long,  of  wdiich  three  feet  four  inches 
are  soHdly  implanted  in  the  ground.  They  are  united  by  side- 
and  cross-bars  (c,  e,  d).  In  front  of  the  corner-posts  (a,  a)  and 
in  the  middle  line  stands  a  head-post  (e)  of  the  same  dimensions 
as  the  corner-posts,  provided  with  a  slot  four  inches  wide  and 


176 


HORSESHOEINCx. 


twenty  inches  long  beginning  three  feet  from  the  ground.    In  this 
slot  is  a  pulley-wheel  (i),  and  below  it  a  windlass  (k)  for  winding 


up  the  rope  which  is  tied  around  the  base  of  the  animal's  horns. 
The  corner-posls  are  provided  with  a  slot  (??)  three  inches  wide 


HORSESHOEING.  177 

and  three  inches  deep,  within  whicli  are  placed  two  movable 
side-bars  (o,  p),  which  can  be  set  at  desired  heights  and  fastened 
by  iron  pins.  Between  the  front  and  rear  corner-posts  of  the 
right-hand  side  is  an  eight-sided  roller  with  a  ratchet  and  click 
at  one  end,  and  having  on  one  of  the  sides  six  iron  hooks,  to 
which  a  girth  is  attached.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  stocks,  at 
the  same  height,  is  a  stationar\^  bar  {f)  with  six  hooks  (r/,  g)  on 
the  outer  side.  The  belly  girth  is  six  feet  long,  six  inches  wide, 
and  terminates  at  both  ends  in  several  strong  cords  two  feet 
four  inches  long  with  iron  rings  at  their  ends.  Between  the 
front  corner-posts  are  a  neck-yoke  {K)  and  a  breast-bar  which 
slide  in  the  slots  (m)  and  may  be  fixed  at  desired  heights  by  iron 
pins.  On  the  rear  face  of  each  rear  corner-post  is  an  iron 
bracket  (s)  one  foot  and  a  half  long,  with  a  ring  (t)  six  inches  ii 
diameter,  through  which  passes  a  round  pole  padded  in  tlio 
middle  and  kept  in  place  by  two  iron  pins.  Above  each  bracket 
is  a  hook  («)  to  which  the  end  of  the  breeching  attaches. 

Before  an  animal  is  brought  into  tlie  stocks  the  neck-yoke  is 
raised,  the  breast-bar  lowered,  and  the  girth  left  hanging  from 
the  hooks  on  the  stationary  bar.  The  ox  is  then  led  into  the 
stocks  and  the  rope  which  is  tied  around  the  base  of  the  horns 
is  carried  over  the  pulley  (i),  fastened  to  the  hook  on  the  roller 
(/;),  and  wound  up  till  the  head  is  tight  against  the  head-post. 
The  yoke  and  breast-bar  are  then  placed  in  position  and  fast- 
ened, the  breeching  hung  on  the  hooks  (u),  and  the  belly  girth 
attached  to  the  hooks  on  the  roller,  so  that,  if  need  be,  it  can  be 
shortened  till  it  bears  the  animal's  entire  weight. 

To  control  a  front  foot  a  slip  noose  is  placed  about  the  fetlock 
and  the  limb  is  raised  and  lasiied  to  the  side-bar,  the  rope  pass- 
ing finally  to  the  hook  (/■).  To  control  a  hind  foot  a  slip  noose 
is  placed  about  the  fetlock,  the  foot  carried  upward  and  back- 
ward over  the  rear  cross-bar,  and,  with  the  front  surface  of  the 
fetlock-joint  resting  against  the  padding  of  the  bar,  the  limb  is 
firmly  secured  by  wrapping  the  line  several  times  about  the  limb 
and  bar.  -, 


178  HORSESHOEING. 

When  no  stocks  are  at  hand,  we  may  use  an  ordinary  farm 
wagon  or  a  truck  wagon.  Tie  the  ox  with  his  head  forward  be- 
tween the  front  and  hind  wheels.  Fasten  the  large  end  of  a 
binding  pole  to  the  spokes  of  the  front  wheel  and  let  it  rest  on 
the  hub.  Swing  the  pole  close  to  the  ox  and  induce  him  to  step 
over  it  with  one  hind  leg,  then  raise  the  rear  end  of  the  pole, 
and  with  it  the  leg  and  so  much  of  the  animal's  hind  quarters 
that  the  inner  hind  leg  standing  close  to  the  wagon  rests  but 
hghtly  upon  the  ground.  The  binding  pole  may  then  be  slung 
with  a  rope  from  the  rack  of  tlie  wagon  or  otlier  stationary 
object  and  the  outer  limb  held  in  the  usual  manner.  By  fol- 
lowing this  method  a  shoer  with  one  assistant  can  easily  and 
safely  control  the  most  refractory  oxen. 


THE    END. 


/  (X'l'l-^J'^^^-jL^-l.'W-i    ^         ^-^ 


THK 


Exterior  of  the  Horse. 


BY 

ARMAND   GOUBAUX,        and       GUSTAVE  BARRIER,   • 

Honorarjf  Director  of  the  Veterinary  School  Professor  of  Anatomv  and  the  Exterior,  at; 

of  Alfort,  Member  of  the  Academy  of  the  Veterinary  School  at  Alfort,  Member 

Medicine  and  of  the  National  Society  of  the  Central  Society  of  Veterinary 

of  Agriculture  of    France.  Medicine   of    France. 

With  346  Figures  and  34  Plates,  by  G-.  Nicolet, 

Librarian  at  the  Veteriuarj'  School  of  Alfort. 


First  Edition  in  English  Translated  from  the  Second  French  Edition 

AND    EDITED    BY 

SIMON   J.  J.  HARGER,  V.M.D., 

Professor  of  Anatomy  and  Zootechiiics  in  the  Veterinarj'  Department  of 
the  University  of  Penn.sylvania. 


The   work   complete   in   One    Large    Octavo   Volume   of 

916   Pages,   printed   in   large   type   on    fine  paper, 

and  neatly  bound  in  cloth.     Price,    $5.00. 


"Since  the  publication  of  Percivall's  work  on  the  External  Forms  of  the  Horse, 
published  in  1850,  there  has  been  nothing  in  English  written  on  this  important 
subject.  This  translation  of  the  standard  European  work  of  Goubaux  and  Barrier, 
therefore,  fills  np  an  important  vacancy  in  our  veterinary  literattire.  The  numer- 
ous atid  excellent  illustrations,  numbering-  not  less  than  three  hundred  and  fiftj-- 
four,  are  neat  and  clear.  The  literary  exectition  is  good,  and  makes  easj'  reading. 
The  publisher's  work  is  far  above  almost  anything  published  in  the  average  of 
veterinary  works.  Altogether  '  Exterior  of  the  Horse'  is  a  superior  work,  which 
does  great  credit  to  the  authors  and  translator,  and  we  have  no  dottbt  will  meet 
with  general  and  deserved  acceptance  by  veterinarians  and  others." — Anieruan 
Veterinary  Revieiv,  New  York. 


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